A HISTORY OF INNER ASIA

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272 A history of Inner Asia In 1941, however, Sheng made a mistake that would put an end to his fairly successful rule: expecting a defeat of Russia by Germany, he swerved to an anti-Soviet and anti-Communist stance and tried to patch up his relations with the government of Chiang Kai-shek (which had meanwhile moved to Chungking).This both deprived him of Soviet support and ended his independence from the central government.By 1943 Sheng also realized that Russia’s defeat was neither imminent nor even likely, and he once more reversed his orientation.It did not work, and in 1944 the once so powerful satrap left Sinkiang for China. One of the results of Sheng’s 1941 turnabout was a shift from his relatively liberal policies, especially with respect to the Uighurs and other non-Chinese ethnic groups, to the far less tolerant attitude of the Kuomintang government.The change had the effect of spurring on the Muslims to again strive for self-rule, and in 1944 a group led by Saifuddin proclaimed autonomy at Kulja – the so-called “Second Revolution.” The location of this attempt was significant: no longer limited to the Uighurs of Kashgaria, it also included the Kazakhs of the Ili region and showed that political ferment had reached the more cosmopolitan Bei Lu centers.The Kuomintang authorities, now installed at Urumchi, were unable to crush the secessionists and tried to resolve the crisis by forming a coalition government of the province that included also Turkic Muslims, and by promising liberal reforms with greater rights for the minorities.Its Chinese chairman, General Chang Chihchung, did not go far enough for the natives, while going too far for the central government, so that in 1947 he was replaced as chairman by Masud Sabri, a conservative Uighur landowner.This seemingly viable compromise did not work either, and in December 1948 yet another attempt was made by replacing him with Burhan Shahidi, a Muslim of complex (possibly Tatar) background that included several years as a citizen of Russian Turkestan and as a member of the Russian Communist Party.These attempts, however, lost any relevance in the wake of the victory of the Communist side in China’s civil war.On 17 December 1949 a Provisional People’s Government was established at Urumchi. China thus regained full control of her Inner Asian possession, and the subsequent process contained elements partly analogous to those present in Russia’s Central Asia of the early 1920s.Recognizing Sinkiang’s special ethnic physiognomy, Beijing gave it the status of an “autonomous region,” with the name of the principal group as the determinant: Sinkiang Uighur Autonomous Region.This happened in
Sinkiang as part of China 273 1955, but already in 1954 the Ili segment had been established as an autonomous sub-section with the name of its principal group as the determinant: Ili Kazakh Autonomous District.Several other autonomous districts, such as the Artush Kyrgyz Autonomous District, were established.This process may have been partly inspired by the razmezhevanie (delimitation) that in 1924 created the republics and autonomous regions of Soviet Central Asia, and the goal was no doubt similar: to give the minorities their due, while retaining control of the area.The subsequent composition of the regional government, parliament, and most institutions also followed the Soviet pattern of filling the nominally principal posts with the natives, while doubling them with Chinese officials so as to make the system fail-safe. Sinkiang, the former Chinese Turkestan, has since then gone through a process that bears many other analogies with its western twin, the former Russian Turkestan.Like Moscow, Beijing has on the whole sincerely allowed the natives to assert their cultural identity, speak and use and teach their languages, and associate with the Chinese on a basis of personal equality.Economic development has been pursued vigorously, transportation and communications media expanded, education and the foundation of schools, including the University of Urumchi, supported.All of that had a price, of course.To begin with, Beijing imposed its Marxist system on the province, with collectivization and other measures of questionable economic soundness.The uncompromising hand of Communism could not but deprive the people of Sinkiang of those freedoms which by the standards of Western democracy are deemed indispensable.Like their brethren across the border, the Uighurs and other Muslims of Sinkiang lived in the 1960s their years of nightmare, some two decades after the nightmare in Soviet Central Asia: the Cultural Revolution hit the natives in a manner not unlike the terror launched by Stalin in the 1930s to break the native Muslims’ national spirit.One of the targets was religion, and organized Islam was indeed put on the defensive; it lived the same marginal kind of existence, carefully monitored by the Chinese government, to which it had been relegated by the Soviet government. Finally one salient feature must be emphasized: the role that the Chinese language has played as the common medium for the region’s citizens, especially for its younger generations.Here too the analogy with Russian across the border is striking.All students learn Chinese at school and many become bilingual, especially those with greater professional ambition.Moreover, immigration from China proper has increased to
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A HISTORY OF INNER ASIA svat soucek
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Contents List of maps pagevii Prefa
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Maps 1 Inner Asia: principal politi
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Preface This book is an attempt to
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Preface xi Population: (approximate
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Preface xiii in the early Middle Ag
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2 A history of Inner Asia Mongolia,
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4 A history of Inner Asia An Histor
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6 A history of Inner Asia cognate o
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8 A history of Inner Asia trophic d
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10 A history of Inner Asia Emirate
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12 A history of Inner Asia If we le
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14 A history of Inner Asia hencefor
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16 A history of Inner Asia streams,
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18 A history of Inner Asia lasting
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20 A history of Inner Asia extermin
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22 A history of Inner Asia Kazakhst
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24 A history of Inner Asia in contr
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26 A history of Inner Asia to be ca
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28 A history of Inner Asia the Dash
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30 A history of Inner Asia is that
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32 A history of Inner Asia three Mi
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34 A history of Inner Asia Moscow b
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36 A history of Inner Asia Ayatulla
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38 A history of Inner Asia (d.1166)
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40 A history of Inner Asia of the d
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42 A history of Inner Asia managed
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44 A history of Inner Asia among th
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chapter one The beginnings To most
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48 A history of Inner Asia ways: a
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50 A history of Inner Asia armies o
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To the Arctic Ocean Kök Turkic Emp
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54 A history of Inner Asia of these
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56 A history of Inner Asia that eve
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58 A history of Inner Asia Khurasan
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60 A history of Inner Asia man amon
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62 A history of Inner Asia would ha
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64 A history of Inner Asia appointi
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66 A history of Inner Asia movement
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68 A history of Inner Asia for almo
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chapter three The Samanids The Arab
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72 A history of Inner Asia Turkic g
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74 A history of Inner Asia the Saha
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76 A history of Inner Asia Ilig (al
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80 A history of Inner Asia factor h
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82 A history of Inner Asia for that
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84 A history of Inner Asia confeder
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88 A history of Inner Asia between
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90 A history of Inner Asia that the
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92 A history of Inner Asia Signific
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94 A history of Inner Asia they see
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96 A history of Inner Asia campaign
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98 A history of Inner Asia for an e
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100 A history of Inner Asia assets,
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Moscow Russian Principalities GOLDE
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104 A history of Inner Asia absent,
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106 A history of Inner Asia elimina
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108 A history of Inner Asia end to
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110 A history of Inner Asia members
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112 A history of Inner Asia in the
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114 A history of Inner Asia unprece
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116 A history of Inner Asia Some tw
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118 A history of Inner Asia madrasa
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120 A history of Inner Asia a still
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122 A history of Inner Asia Chaghat
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Moscow 1395 Tamerlane's campaigns,
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126 A history of Inner Asia of Tran
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128 A history of Inner Asia Ulugh B
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130 A history of Inner Asia an unde
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132 A history of Inner Asia the wor
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134 A history of Inner Asia known b
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136 A history of Inner Asia almost
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138 A history of Inner Asia Sammasi
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140 A history of Inner Asia The abo
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142 A history of Inner Asia formal
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chapter ten The last Timurids and t
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146 A history of Inner Asia usually
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148 A history of Inner Asia of anot
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150 A history of Inner Asia they wo
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152 A history of Inner Asia leader,
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154 A history of Inner Asia imate t
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156 A history of Inner Asia between
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158 A history of Inner Asia 1580 Kh
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160 A history of Inner Asia 1380s.O
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chapter twelve The rise of Russia,
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164 A history of Inner Asia the lat
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166 A history of Inner Asia religio
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168 A history of Inner Asia however
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170 A history of Inner Asia The pro
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172 A history of Inner Asia place.I
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174 A history of Inner Asia Jahangi
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Horde of Bükey (nomadic Kazakhs) M
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178 A history of Inner Asia Bukhara
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180 A history of Inner Asia Shah’
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182 A history of Inner Asia by then
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184 A history of Inner Asia of Iran
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186 A history of Inner Asia For 372
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188 A history of Inner Asia the wes
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190 A history of Inner Asia Khoqand
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192 A history of Inner Asia the fai
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SIBERIAN RUSSIA R U S S I A Omsk Or
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196 A history of Inner Asia prestig
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200 A history of Inner Asia We may
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204 A history of Inner Asia extent
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206 A history of Inner Asia modern
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208 A history of Inner Asia in whic
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210 A history of Inner Asia newspap
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212 A history of Inner Asia Central
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214 A history of Inner Asia and mil
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216 A history of Inner Asia Republi
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218 A history of Inner Asia began t
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220 A history of Inner Asia Communi
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Page 280 and 281: Sinkiang (Chinese Turkestan) RUSSIA
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Page 292 and 293: Omsk Troitsk RUSSIAN FEDERATION RUS
Page 294 and 295: UZBEKISTAN KYRGYZSTAN Syr Darya Riv
Page 296 and 297: Uzbekistan Syr Darya Aral Sea (Kaza
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Page 332 and 333: Appendix 1 dynastic tables This sec
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322 Appendix 1 21.Qazan (1343-46),
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324 Appendix 1 Timurid (non-Genghis
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326 Appendix 1 x.Yar Muhammad 1.Jan
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328 Appendix 1 25.Abu l-Ghazi III (
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330 Appendix 1 7a.Qilich Burhan al-
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332 Appendix 2 Kazakh Muslims were
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334 Appendix 2 Currency: The som; i
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336 Appendix 2 Religion: Historical
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338 Appendix 2 Sinkiang (Sinkiang U
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340 Appendix 2 Dundgov (Mandalgov);
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342 Select bibliography Barthold, W
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344 Select bibliography Aitmatov, C
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346 Select bibliography Bennigsen,
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348 Select bibliography Language Pl
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350 Select bibliography Istoriya Ka
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352 Select bibliography Mackenzie,
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354 Select bibliography Semenov, A.
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356 Select bibliography Bayhaqi, Ab
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358 Select bibliography Arends (Mos
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Abbasids, second dynasty of caliphs
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362 Index constitution, Soviet, 283
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364 Index Kaufman, Konstantin Petro
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366 Index Pamir Boundary Commission
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368 Index Togan, Zeki Velidi, Bashk
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A HISTORY OF INNER ASIA

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