Financial systems and development

the Demographic and Health Surveys, World Bank dence of other forms of retarded development.
country data, and the U.N. publication Recent Lev- The figures are derived from WHO and UNICEF
els and Trends of Contraceptive Use as Assessed in 1983. sources and are based on national data. The data
For a few countries for which no survey data are are not strictly comparable across countries, as
available, program statistics are used; these in- they are compiled from a combination of surveys
clude Bangladesh, India, and several African coun- and administrative records and other such
tries. Program statistics may understate contracep- sources.
tive prevalence because they do not measure use The summary measures in this table are country
of methods such as rhythm, withdrawal, or absti- figures weighted by each country's share in the
nence, or contraceptives not obtained through the aggregate population.
official family planning program. The data refer to
rates prevailing in a variety of years, generally not Table 29. Education
more than three years prior to the year specified in
the tables.
The data in this table refer to a variety of years,
All summary measures are country data weighted generally not more than two years distant from
by each country's share in the aggregate popula- those specified, and are mostly from Unesco.
tion.
However, disaggregated figures for males and females
sometimes refer to a year earlier than that
Table 28. Health and nutrition
for overall totals.
The data on primary school enrollments are esti-
The estimates of population per physician and nursing mates of children of all ages enrolled in primary
person are derived from World Health Organization school. Figures are expressed as the ratio of pupils
(WHO) data. The data refer to a variety of years, to the population of school-age children. While
generally no more than two years prior to the year many countries consider primary school age to be
specified. The figure for physicians, in addition to 6 to 11 years, others do not. The differences in
the total number of registered practitioners in the country practices in the ages and duration of
country, includes medical assistants whose medi- schooling are reflected in the ratios given. For
cal training is less than that of qualified physicians, some countries with universal primary education,
but who nevertheless dispense similar medical the gross enrollment ratios may exceed 100 percent
services, including simple operations. The num- because some pupils are younger or older than the
bers include "barefoot doctors." Nursing persons country's standard primary school age. The data
include graduate, practical, assistant, and auxiliary on secondary school enrollments are calculated in the
nurses, as well as paraprofessional personnel such same manner, but again the definition of secondas
health workers, first aid workers, traditional ary school age differs among countries. It is most
birth attendants, etc. The inclusion of auxiliary and commonly considered 12 to 17 years. Late entry of
paraprofessional personnel provides more realistic more mature students, as well as repetition and
estimates of available nursing care. Because defini- the phenomenon of bunching in final grades, can
tions of doctors and nursing personnel vary-and influence these ratios.
because the data shown are for a variety of years- The tertiary enrollment ratio is calculated by dividthe
data for these two indicators are not strictly ing the number of pupils enrolled in all postcomparable
across countries.
secondary schools and universities by the popula-
The daily calorie supply per capita is calculated by tion in the 20-24 age group. Pupils attending
dividing the calorie equivalent of the food supplies vocational schools, adult education programs, twoin
an economy by the population. Food supplies year community colleges, and distance education
comprise domestic production, imports less ex- centers (primarily correspondence courses) are inports,
and changes in stocks; they exclude animal cluded. The distribution of pupils across these diffeed,
seeds for use in agriculture, and food lost in ferent types of institutions varies among countries.
processing and distribution. These estimates are The youth population, that is 20 to 24 years, is used
from the FAO.
as the denominator since it represents an average
The percentage of babies with low birth weights tertiary level cohort. Although in higher-income
relates to children born weighing less than 2,500 countries, youths age 18 to 19 may be enrolled in a
grams. Low birth weight is frequently associated tertiary institution (and are included in the numerawith
maternal malnutrition, and tends to raise the tor), in both low- and middle-income and highrisk
of infant mortality and to lead to poor growth income economies, many people older than 25
in infancy and childhood, thus increasing the inci- years are also enrolled in such institutions.
244