Physiology and Molecular Biology of Stress ... - KHAM PHA MOI

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190 K. Janardhan Reddy World nitrogen consumption has increased from 22 to 80 million tons in the last 20 years. Anhydrous ammonia is the main ingredient of most of the nitrogenous fertilizers. 3. PHOSPHORUS Phosphorus is the second important nutrient required by plants .It is an essential component of nucleic acids, phosphorylated sugars, lipids and proteins which control all life processes. Phosphorus forms high energy phosphate bonds with adenine, guanine and uridine which act as carriers of energy for many biological reactions. Phosphorus is present in the soil in inorganic and organic forms. Much of the inorganic phosphorus is present mainly as H 2 PO 4- and HPO 4 2- . Availability of these ions depend on soil pH. The lower pH favours H 2 PO 4- and the higher pH HPO 4 2- . The main source of organic phosphorus is plant and animal debris residue and this is degraded by microorganisms to release in organic phosphorus. Vance et al (2003) found that plant growth is limited because of the inaccessible and unavailable form in the soil. Arbuscular mycorrhizae (AM fungi) promote the plant growth by the improved supply of phosphorus from the soil (Tinker et al., 1992). Since the phosphate availability is usually low in the soils, the plants have developed special adaptations to acquire the same with the help of multiple high affinity transporters (Raghothama, 1999). The requirement of phosphorus for optimal growth is in the range of 0.3 to 0.5% of the plant dry matter. The toxicity may occur if the tissue concentration is more than 1% in the dry matter. Phosphorus deficiency decreased photosynthetic rate in soyabean leaves (Lauer et al., 1989). Root growth is less affected under phosphorus deficiency than shoot growth leading to a typical decrease in shoot –root dry weight ratio (Fredeen et al., 1989).Phosphorus deficiency not only retard shoot growth but also affects the formation of reproductive organs (Barry and Miller, 1989). Toyota et al., (2003) observed that phosphorus deficiency induced the expression of phosphoenolpyruvate carboxylase in Tobacco. Phosphorus deficient plants show stunted growth, leaves develop characteristic dark blue green colour and some times purplish appearance. Because of the high mobility of phosphorus older leaves become chlorotic as compared to younger leaves. Leaf shape may be distorted and also leads to reduction in the number of leaves (Lynch et al., 1991). Phosphorus deficiency caused decrease in primary root elongation and increased lateral root formation.(Lynch and Brown, 2001; Hodge, 2004). Phosphorus toxicity induces iron and zinc deficiency. At higher levels of P the yield was decreased in Abelmoschus esculentus L. due to the deficiency of zinc (Table 2). Main source for phosphorus fertilizers is the rock phosphate. super phosphate and Diammonium phosphate are important phosphorus fertilizers. In response to phosphorus deficiency several genes are expresssed. Expression of these genes could be used to develop the crop plants for the improved phosphorus use efficiency. (Wang et al., 2002; Hammond et al., 2003; Franco-Zorrilla et al., 2004).
Nutrient Stress 191 Table 2. Effect of phosphorus and zinc (Kg/ha) on dry matter yield of tops and roots and fruit yield in okra (Abelmoschus esculentus L. (v. Pusa sawani)* Dry matter yield (g)/plant Fruit yield (q/ha) Tops Roots Zn 0 Zn 5 Zn 10 Zn 25 Zn 0 Zn 5 Zn 10 Zn 25 Zn 0 Zn 5 Zn 10 Zn 25 P 0 2.06 2.30 1.86 1.20 1.08 1.92 1.34 0.60 44.30 62.16 56.47 40.62 P 50 2.88 2.18 2.58 1.62 1.52 1.24 1.48 0.75 89.20 55.80 68.65 54.62 P 100 3.16 3.68 4.01 1.85 1.81 2.00 2.20 0.88 106.1 109.0 121.1 58.84 P 300 1.25 2.61 2.04 1.40 0.68 0.95 0.83 0.66 39.51 59.77 56.05 50.18 * Usha Kumari and Reddy (2000). 4. POTASSIUM + Potassium (K ) is a monovalent cation and usually occurs in its hydrated form. Potasium content in the earth’s crust is around 2.3%. Soil K + can be divided in to three fractions 1. K + as a structural element of soil minerals . 2. K + adsorbed as exchangeable from soil to clay minerals and organic matter. + 3. K present in the soil solution. Potassium plays a pivotal role in plant growth and development. Membrane K + channels are essential for the transport of K + between the cell compartments and cells with in a tissue. The channels open and close at different sequence and length in response to environmental signals and cause changes in the electro potential of the membrane and control entry of K + . A high affinity transporter, HKT1 responsible for K + transport and K + - Na + symport has been identified (Fox and Guerinot, 1998). Potassium promotes cell elongation and maintains osmoregulation. Potassium promotes photosynthetic rate and controls the rate of transport of photosynthates from source to sink. Potassium is also essential for protein synthesis and activates nearly 45 enzymes involved in various metabolic processes. Potassium is required in 2 to 5% of dry weight of plants. Potassium deficiency induces reduced growth, shortening of inter nodes followed by bushy appearance, chlorosis and necrosis. The symptoms first appear on older leaves. K + deficient plants are susceptible to lodging and drought (Lindhauer,1985). Abundant K + supply causes
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PHYSIOLOGY AND MOLECULAR BIOLOGY OF
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A C.I.P. Catalogue record for this
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About the Editors K.V. Madhava Rao
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LIST OF CONTRIBUTORS K. AKASHI Grad
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List of Contributors xiii NAVINDER
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PREFACE Increasing agricultural pro
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2 K.V. Madhava Rao Abiotic stresses
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4 K.V. Madhava Rao SOME O THE PROMI
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6 K.V. Madhava Rao 2. WATER STRESS
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8 K.V. Madhava Rao 5. FREEZING STRE
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10 K.V. Madhava Rao of these pathwa
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12 K.V. Madhava Rao Bray, E.A. (199
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14 K.V. Madhava Rao Rao, K.V. Madha
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16 A. Yokota, K. Takahara and K. Ak
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41 CHAPTER 3 SALT STRESS ZORA DAJIC
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Salt Stress 43 activities (mainly i
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Salt Stress 45 In summary, mechanis
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Salt Stress 47 tolerance research i
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Salt Stress 49 need to rely on sodi
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Salt Stress 51 (Echeverria, 2000).
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Salt Stress 53 Therefore, the capac
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Salt Stress 55 Reduced plant growth
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Salt Stress 57 Table 3. Salt tolera
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Salt Stress 59 6.2. Nitrogen Fixati
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Salt Stress 61 A significant number
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Salt Stress 63 macromolecules, irre
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Salt Stress 65 8.2. Ion Homeostasis
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Salt Stress 67 1997), is speculated
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Salt Stress 69 together with the At
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Salt Stress 71 important role in si
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Salt Stress 73 Figure 5. Determinan
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Salt Stress 75 9.1.Transgenic Plant
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Salt Stress 77 tolerance from halop
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Salt Stress 79 sponse and yield (Su
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Salt Stress 81 Table 5. Possible ut
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Salt Stress 83 monitored with fluor
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Salt Stress 85 Func. Plant Biol. 29
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Salt Stress 87 Dajic, Z., Stevanovi
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Salt Stress 89 Gouia, H., Ghorbal,
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Salt Stress 91 Larcher, W. (1995).
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Salt Stress 93 Munns, R. and James,
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Salt Stress 95 Rausell, A., Kanhono
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Salt Stress 97 durum wheat crops gr
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Salt Stress 99 Yoshida, K. (2002).
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102 T.D. Sharkey and S.M. Schrader
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131 CHAPTER 5 FREEZING STRESS: SYST
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Freezing Stress 133 Whereas, in the
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Freezing Stress 135 genes at the tr
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Freezing Stress 137 with physiologi
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Heavy Metal Stress 241 5. HYPERACCU
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Table 2. Genes introduced into plan
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Heavy Metal Stress 245 7. CONCLUSIO
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Heavy Metal Stress 247 controlled b
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Heavy Metal Stress 249 Kägi, J.H.R
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Heavy Metal Stress 251 Murphy, A.,
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Heavy Metal Stress 253 through xyle
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255 CHAPTER 9 METABOLIC ENGINEERING
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Metabolic Engineering for Stress To
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302 A.K. Tyagi, S. Vij and N. Saini
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Table 3. Continued... Source Resour
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336 Index Auxins, 146 Avena sativa
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338 Expressed sequence tags (ESTs),
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340 Index Magnesium, 195 Mairiena s
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342 Index Processes less sensitive
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344 Index Sunflecks, 104 Sunflower,
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