Physiology and Molecular Biology of Stress ... - KHAM PHA MOI

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28 A. Yokota, K. Takahara and K. Akashi Abscisic acid increases the production of active oxygen species in the guard cells (Pei et al., 2000; Zhang et al., 2001). The involvement of NADPH oxidase in the production of active oxygen species has been demonstrated in the atrbohD/F Arabidopsis mutant in which the genes for putative subunits of NADPH oxidase have been disrupted (Kwak et al., 2003). The active oxygen species formed activate the calcium ion channel to increase the cytosolic concentration of calcium ions. Another second messenger, sphingosine-1-phosphate (S1P), is formed from sphingosines, long-chain amino alcohols, by sphingosine kinase. ABA also increases activity of this enzyme in the guard cells (Coursol et al., 2003). S1P increases the intracellular concentration of calcium ions thereby contributing to stomatal closure (Ng et al., 2001). The gpa mutant of Arabidopsis in which the gene for the α-subunit of a trimeric small G protein has been disrupted, fails to inactivate the inward potassium channel and close its stomata even with administration of ABA or S1P (Wang et al., 2001). These findings support the model in which ABA signals are transferred to the ion channel through S1P and then the G protein. There is also evidence that ABA increases levels of other second messengers such as inositol 1,4,5-triphosphate (InsP3) and myo-inositol hexakisphosphate (InsP6). InsP3 and InsP6 also promote the release of calcium ions from the vacuole to cytosol thereby contributing to stomatal closure (Lemtiri-Chlieh et al., 2003). It has also been proposed that nitric oxide (NO) functions as a second messenger in the ABA signaling pathway in guard cells. No stomatal closure occurs in the presence of ABA in Arabidopsis mutants lacking the NO synthase gene (Guo et al., 2003). The involvement of NO in stomatal closure has also been supported in other experiments where various reagents that stimulate NO production or inhibit NO metabolism have been applied (Garcia-Mata and Lamattina, 2002; Neill et al., 2002). It has been proposed that NO induces the efflux of calcium ions from the vacuole to cytosol during stomatal closure (Garcia-Mata et al., 2003). 4.3. Regulation of Gene Expression under Drought Stress In response to drought stress, expression of a large number of genes is up-regulated (Figure 3) (Bray, 1997). Determination of drought-responsive genes in model plants such as Arabidopsis and rice was made possible after development of DNA micro-array technology (Seki et al., 2001, 2002; Kawasaki et al., 2001; Krebs et al., 2002; Leonhardt et al., 2004). Since some of these genes are also up-regulated by salt and low temperature stresses, signaling cascades for these stresses are thought to overlap. Genes up-regulated by drought are categorized into two groups (Bray, 1997; Yamaguchi-Shinozaki and Shinozaki, 2005). One includes genes encoding proteins whose catalytic activities are responsible for protecting the cells and organs against stress, while the other includes genes encoding proteins necessary for signal transduction and regulation of gene expression. The proteins directly responsible for defending cells against stress participate in various physiological and biochemical events. They
Water Stress 29 include water and ion channels, enzymes necessary for the formation of compatible solutes, molecular chaperons, late embryogenesis abundant (LEA) proteins, proteins involved in protein degradation, and reactive oxygen-scavenging enzymes. Figure 3. Transcriptional factors and cis-acting elements involved in water stressresponsive gene expression. Transcriptional factors and cis-acting elements are shown in oval and square boxes, respectively. Abbreviations: ABA, abscisic acid; AREB, ABREbinding proteins; ABRE, ABA-responsive element; CE, coupling element; MYBR, MYB recognition site; MYC, MYC recognition site; DREB, DRE-binding protein; CBF, C- repeat-binding factor; DRE/CRT, dehydration-responsive element/C-repeat; LEA, late embryogenesis abundant protein Expression of many genes for transcription factors is up-regulated under drought stress conditions. These transcriptional factors include the dehydration-responsible element (DRE)/C-repeat (CRT)-binding (DREB/CBF) protein family, ethyleneresponsible element binding factor (ERF), zinc-finger family, WRKY family, basic helixloop-helix (bHLH) family, basic-domain leucine zipper (bZIP) family, NAC family, and homeodomain transcription family. Drought stress also induces expression of proteins functioning in phosphorylation signaling cascades such as MAP kinase, calcium-dependent kinase, receptor kinase and histidine kinase, and in phospholipid metabolism (Zhu, 2002). Drought-responsive genes can be divided into two groups, ABA-dependent and ABA-independent genes, according to their dependency on ABA for induction (Yamaguchi-Shinozaki and Shinozaki, 2005). The ABA-responsive element (ABRE) is a major cis-sequence in the promoter of many ABA-responsive genes. The cis-element was first identified in the Em gene of wheat and has since been found in various plants such as maize, oat, rice, tobacco and Arabidopsis where it functions as an ABRE. Expression of ABA-responsive genes is activated through binding of AREB/ABF, a bZIP-type transcription factor, to the ABRE sequence (Uno et al., 2000; Choi et al., 2000).
Page 2 and 3: PHYSIOLOGY AND MOLECULAR BIOLOGY OF
Page 4 and 5: A C.I.P. Catalogue record for this
Page 6 and 7: About the Editors K.V. Madhava Rao
Page 8 and 9: LIST OF CONTRIBUTORS K. AKASHI Grad
Page 10 and 11: List of Contributors xiii NAVINDER
Page 12 and 13: PREFACE Increasing agricultural pro
Page 14 and 15: 2 K.V. Madhava Rao Abiotic stresses
Page 16 and 17: 4 K.V. Madhava Rao SOME O THE PROMI
Page 18 and 19: 6 K.V. Madhava Rao 2. WATER STRESS
Page 20 and 21: 8 K.V. Madhava Rao 5. FREEZING STRE
Page 22 and 23: 10 K.V. Madhava Rao of these pathwa
Page 24 and 25: 12 K.V. Madhava Rao Bray, E.A. (199
Page 26 and 27: 14 K.V. Madhava Rao Rao, K.V. Madha
Page 28 and 29: 16 A. Yokota, K. Takahara and K. Ak
Page 52 and 53: 41 CHAPTER 3 SALT STRESS ZORA DAJIC
Page 54 and 55: Salt Stress 43 activities (mainly i
Page 56 and 57: Salt Stress 45 In summary, mechanis
Page 58 and 59: Salt Stress 47 tolerance research i
Page 60 and 61: Salt Stress 49 need to rely on sodi
Page 62 and 63: Salt Stress 51 (Echeverria, 2000).
Page 64 and 65: Salt Stress 53 Therefore, the capac
Page 66 and 67: Salt Stress 55 Reduced plant growth
Page 68 and 69: Salt Stress 57 Table 3. Salt tolera
Page 70 and 71: Salt Stress 59 6.2. Nitrogen Fixati
Page 72 and 73: Salt Stress 61 A significant number
Page 74 and 75: Salt Stress 63 macromolecules, irre
Page 76 and 77: Salt Stress 65 8.2. Ion Homeostasis
Page 78 and 79: Salt Stress 67 1997), is speculated
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Page 82 and 83: Salt Stress 71 important role in si
Page 84 and 85: Salt Stress 73 Figure 5. Determinan
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Salt Stress 79 sponse and yield (Su
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Salt Stress 81 Table 5. Possible ut
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Salt Stress 83 monitored with fluor
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Salt Stress 85 Func. Plant Biol. 29
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Salt Stress 87 Dajic, Z., Stevanovi
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Salt Stress 89 Gouia, H., Ghorbal,
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Salt Stress 91 Larcher, W. (1995).
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Salt Stress 93 Munns, R. and James,
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Salt Stress 95 Rausell, A., Kanhono
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Salt Stress 97 durum wheat crops gr
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Salt Stress 99 Yoshida, K. (2002).
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102 T.D. Sharkey and S.M. Schrader
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131 CHAPTER 5 FREEZING STRESS: SYST
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Freezing Stress 133 Whereas, in the
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Freezing Stress 135 genes at the tr
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Freezing Stress 137 with physiologi
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Freezing Stress 139 (1997). However
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Freezing Stress 141 (Barnett et al.
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Freezing Stress 143 (dehydrin) prot
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Freezing Stress 145 in cytosolic Ca
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Freezing Stress 147 Phospholiphase
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Freezing Stress 149 Accumulation of
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Freezing Stress 151 Ideker, T., Gal
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Freezing Stress 153 ellin acid on f
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Freezing Stress 155 Yoshida, S. and
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158 A.R. Reddy and A.S. Raghavendra
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188 K. Janardhan Reddy constitution
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190 K. Janardhan Reddy World nitrog
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192 K. Janardhan Reddy nitrogen def
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194 K. Janardhan Reddy endoplasmic
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196 K. Janardhan Reddy drought cond
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198 K. Janardhan Reddy Manganese-de
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200 K. Janardhan Reddy zinc deficie
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202 K. Janardhan Reddy Table 12 . E
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204 K. Janardhan Reddy Table 14. Ef
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206 K. Janardhan Reddy Table 15. Th
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208 K. Janardhan Reddy Table 17. Co
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210 K. Janardhan Reddy 18. MOLECULA
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212 K. Janardhan Reddy Bush, D.S.,
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214 K. Janardhan Reddy and Cobbett,
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216 K. Janardhan Reddy 143, 109-111
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219 CHAPTER 8 HEAVY METAL STRESS KS
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Heavy Metal Stress 221 porter) and
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Heavy Metal Stress 223 Figure 1. Su
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Heavy Metal Stress 225 is enzymatic
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Heavy Metal Stress 227 BjPCS1 was e
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Heavy Metal Stress 229 following: (
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Heavy Metal Stress 231 a precursor
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Heavy Metal Stress 233 notype. Incr
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Table 1. Proposed specificity and l
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Heavy Metal Stress 237 4.2. Chapero
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Heavy Metal Stress 239 of prokaryot
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Heavy Metal Stress 241 5. HYPERACCU
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Table 2. Genes introduced into plan
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Heavy Metal Stress 245 7. CONCLUSIO
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Heavy Metal Stress 247 controlled b
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Heavy Metal Stress 249 Kägi, J.H.R
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Heavy Metal Stress 251 Murphy, A.,
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Heavy Metal Stress 253 through xyle
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255 CHAPTER 9 METABOLIC ENGINEERING
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Metabolic Engineering for Stress To
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302 A.K. Tyagi, S. Vij and N. Saini
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Table 3. Continued... Source Resour
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336 Index Auxins, 146 Avena sativa
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338 Expressed sequence tags (ESTs),
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340 Index Magnesium, 195 Mairiena s
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342 Index Processes less sensitive
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344 Index Sunflecks, 104 Sunflower,
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Physiology and Molecular Biology of Stress ... - KHAM PHA MOI

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