Physiology and Molecular Biology of Stress ... - KHAM PHA MOI

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Metabolic Engineering for Stress Tolerance 275 Figure 6. Hyperaccumulation of arsenic in the shoots of Chinese brake fern Pteris vittata, when grown in a hydroponic nutrient solution containing 1000 ppm sodium arsenate (Adapted from T u et. al., 2002). Inset is a picture of the fern and sequesteration will be useful in the future to engineer “remediation ready” transgenic plants for efficient phytoremediation of arsenic contaminated soil and ground water. 3.2.8. Oxidative Stress Tolerance Even though, molecular oxygen is vital for the survival of living organisms, it offers a challenge to aerobic living beings through the synthesis of reactive oxygen species (ROS). Increased production of ROS is one of the facets of most environmental stress factors such as drought, salinity and heavy metal stress. Development of ROS is responsible for the creation of oxidative stress. Significant damage to the plants is caused by quick buildup of toxic products from reactions of ROS with lipids and proteins. Under oxidative stress, formation of lipid peroxides (chemically or enzymatically) causes cellular damage (Chia et. al., 1984; Dhindsa et. al., 1981). Antioxidative enzymes such as superoxide dismutase (SOD), ascorbate peroxidase (APX), glutathione peroxidase (GPX) and glutathione S-transferase (GST), and low-molecular weight antioxidants such as ascorbic acid and flavonoids are present in plants (Yu et. al., 1998; Yu and
276 B. Rathinasabapathi and R. Kaur Rengel, 1999). Specific role of these enzymes or small molecules are better understood by manipulating expression of the genes encoding antioxidant enzymes or by engineering synthetic pathways to antioxidants (Allen et. al., 1997). Since many of both enzymatic and non-enzymatic antioxidant systems are understood in plants, it must be possible to improve oxidative stress tolerance in crops via metabolic engineering. Some examples for such metabolic engineering attempts are listed in Table 5. Transgenic tobacco, lucerne, potato and cotton overexpressing SOD in the chloroplasts showed higher tolerance to oxidative stress (Bowler et. al., 1991, Gupta et. al., 1993a, b, McKersie et. al., 1993, 1996, Perl et. al., 1993, Foyer et. al., 1994, Slooten et. al., 1995). Similar results were observed with overproduction of SOD in the mitochondria of lucerne (McKersie et. al., 1997) and in the cytosol of potato (Perl et. al., 1993). Transgenic tobacco engineered to overexpress MnSOD in chloroplast provided protection from Mn deficiency mediated oxidative stress (Yu et. al., 1999). The tripeptide glutathione, the major cellular antioxidant, detoxifies the excess hydrogen peroxide generated during oxidative stress. Glutathione metabolism has therefore been manipulated to improve plant’s oxidative stress tolerance (Noctor et. al., 1998). Transgenic plants overexpressing glutathione reductase had an increase in their reduced:oxidized glutathione ratio with enhanced tolerance to oxidative stress (Noctor et. al., 1998). Glutathione peroxidase is responsible for removal of unsaturated fatty acid hydroperoxides generated in cellular membranes during oxidative stress. Transgenic tobacco plants overexpressing Chlamydomonas glutathione peroxidase in the chloroplast or the cytosol, exhibited higher membrane integrity by increasing tolerance against oxidative stress (Yoshimura et. al., 2004). 3.2.9. Heat and Cold Stress Temperate and subtropical plants are extremely vulnerable to high temperatures especially during early tillering, flower initiation, anthesis and grain filling stages, leading to considerable decrease in crop productivity. All tropical crops are exposed to high temperatures and can benefit by increasing their high temperature stress tolerance further (also see Chapter 4). However, this trait is particularly valuable in some of the world’s most important food crops naturally adapted to cold weather. For example, improving the heat stress tolerance in winter cereals and potato can extend these crops to areas currently not suitable for them and increase their yield potential in some of the currently grown locations (Veilleux et. al., 1997; Maestri et. al., 2002). Despite our vast knowledge on how organisms respond to high temperature stress, little progress has been made in breeding crops for high temperature stress tolerance. 3.2.10. Heat Shock Proteins In response to high temperature, all organisms including plants produce a set of proteins known as heat shock proteins (HSPs). Heat shock proteins (HSPs) have been
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PHYSIOLOGY AND MOLECULAR BIOLOGY OF
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A C.I.P. Catalogue record for this
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About the Editors K.V. Madhava Rao
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LIST OF CONTRIBUTORS K. AKASHI Grad
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List of Contributors xiii NAVINDER
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PREFACE Increasing agricultural pro
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2 K.V. Madhava Rao Abiotic stresses
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4 K.V. Madhava Rao SOME O THE PROMI
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6 K.V. Madhava Rao 2. WATER STRESS
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8 K.V. Madhava Rao 5. FREEZING STRE
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10 K.V. Madhava Rao of these pathwa
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12 K.V. Madhava Rao Bray, E.A. (199
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14 K.V. Madhava Rao Rao, K.V. Madha
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16 A. Yokota, K. Takahara and K. Ak
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41 CHAPTER 3 SALT STRESS ZORA DAJIC
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Salt Stress 43 activities (mainly i
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Salt Stress 45 In summary, mechanis
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Salt Stress 47 tolerance research i
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Salt Stress 49 need to rely on sodi
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Salt Stress 51 (Echeverria, 2000).
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Salt Stress 53 Therefore, the capac
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Salt Stress 55 Reduced plant growth
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Salt Stress 57 Table 3. Salt tolera
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Salt Stress 59 6.2. Nitrogen Fixati
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Salt Stress 61 A significant number
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Salt Stress 63 macromolecules, irre
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Salt Stress 65 8.2. Ion Homeostasis
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Salt Stress 67 1997), is speculated
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Salt Stress 69 together with the At
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Salt Stress 71 important role in si
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Salt Stress 73 Figure 5. Determinan
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Salt Stress 75 9.1.Transgenic Plant
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Salt Stress 77 tolerance from halop
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Salt Stress 79 sponse and yield (Su
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Salt Stress 81 Table 5. Possible ut
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Salt Stress 83 monitored with fluor
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Salt Stress 85 Func. Plant Biol. 29
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Salt Stress 87 Dajic, Z., Stevanovi
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Salt Stress 89 Gouia, H., Ghorbal,
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Salt Stress 91 Larcher, W. (1995).
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Salt Stress 93 Munns, R. and James,
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Salt Stress 95 Rausell, A., Kanhono
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Salt Stress 97 durum wheat crops gr
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Salt Stress 99 Yoshida, K. (2002).
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102 T.D. Sharkey and S.M. Schrader
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131 CHAPTER 5 FREEZING STRESS: SYST
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Freezing Stress 133 Whereas, in the
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Freezing Stress 135 genes at the tr
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Freezing Stress 137 with physiologi
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Freezing Stress 139 (1997). However
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Freezing Stress 141 (Barnett et al.
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Freezing Stress 143 (dehydrin) prot
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Freezing Stress 145 in cytosolic Ca
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Freezing Stress 147 Phospholiphase
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Freezing Stress 149 Accumulation of
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Freezing Stress 151 Ideker, T., Gal
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Freezing Stress 153 ellin acid on f
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Freezing Stress 155 Yoshida, S. and
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158 A.R. Reddy and A.S. Raghavendra
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188 K. Janardhan Reddy constitution
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190 K. Janardhan Reddy World nitrog
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192 K. Janardhan Reddy nitrogen def
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194 K. Janardhan Reddy endoplasmic
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196 K. Janardhan Reddy drought cond
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198 K. Janardhan Reddy Manganese-de
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200 K. Janardhan Reddy zinc deficie
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202 K. Janardhan Reddy Table 12 . E
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204 K. Janardhan Reddy Table 14. Ef
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206 K. Janardhan Reddy Table 15. Th
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208 K. Janardhan Reddy Table 17. Co
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210 K. Janardhan Reddy 18. MOLECULA
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212 K. Janardhan Reddy Bush, D.S.,
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214 K. Janardhan Reddy and Cobbett,
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216 K. Janardhan Reddy 143, 109-111
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219 CHAPTER 8 HEAVY METAL STRESS KS
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Heavy Metal Stress 221 porter) and
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Heavy Metal Stress 223 Figure 1. Su
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Page 252 and 253: Heavy Metal Stress 245 7. CONCLUSIO
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Page 256 and 257: Heavy Metal Stress 249 Kägi, J.H.R
Page 258 and 259: Heavy Metal Stress 251 Murphy, A.,
Page 260 and 261: Heavy Metal Stress 253 through xyle
Page 262 and 263: 255 CHAPTER 9 METABOLIC ENGINEERING
Page 264 and 265: Metabolic Engineering for Stress To
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326 A.K. Tyagi, S. Vij and N. Saini
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336 Index Auxins, 146 Avena sativa
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338 Expressed sequence tags (ESTs),
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340 Index Magnesium, 195 Mairiena s
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342 Index Processes less sensitive
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344 Index Sunflecks, 104 Sunflower,
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