Kristian Williams - Our Enemies in Blue - Police and Power in America

71 Both quoted in Hays, "Politics of Reform," 160. See also: Fogelson, Big-City Police, 37; SidneyHarring, "The Development of the Police Institution in the United States," Crime and Socialjustice: A jo urnal o/Radical Criminology (Spring-Summer 19(6) : 58; and James We instein, TheCo rporate Ideal in the Liberal State: 1900-1918 (Boston: Beacon Press, 1968), 100 104.72 Fogelson, Big-City Police, 42.73 The reformers emphasized the representative aspects of government at the expense of its participatoryaspects. "According to the liberal view of the Progressive Era, the major political innovationsof reform involved the equalization of political power through the primary, the direct electionof public officials, and the initiative, referendum, and recall. These measures played a largerole in the political ideology of the time and were frequently incorporated into new municipalcharters. But they provided at best only an occasional and often incidental process of decisionmaking.Far more important in continuously sustained day-to-day processes of government werethose innovations which centralized decision-making in the hands of fewer and fewer people."Hays, "Politics of Reform," 163.74 Fogelson, Big- City Police, 47 and 6263.75 Edward C. Banfield and James Q. Wilson, City Politics (Cambridge, MA: Harvard UnivetsityPress and the MIT Press, 1963), 127. Parentheses in original.76 Fogelson, Big- City Police, 111-1 12.77 Cramsci, hmously, distinguished between "domination" and "intellectual and moral leadership,"identifYing hegemony with the latter. He argued: "A social group dominates antagonistic groups,which it tends to 'liquidate', or to subjugate perhaps even by armed fo rce; it leads kindred orallied groups. A social group can, and indeed must, already exercise 'leadership' before winninggovernmental power (this indeed is one of the principal conditions lor the winning of suchpower); it subsequently becomes dominant when it exercises power, but even if it holds it firmlyin its grasp, it must continue ({) 'lead' as well." Antonio Gramsci, Selections From the Prison Notebooksof Antol/io Gramsci, ed. Quintin Hoare and Geoffrey Nowell-Smith (New Yo rk: InternationalPublishers, 1971), 5758.78 Femia argues along similar lines, suggesting that hegemony operates "by mystifYing power relations,by justifYing fo rms of sacrifice and deprivation, by indUCing fatalism and passivity, and bynarrowing mental horizons." Joseph V. Femia, Gramscis Political Thought: Hegemony, Consciousness,and the Revollitionary Process (Oxford: Clarendon Press, 1981), 45.79 Bernard Shaw, "The Doctor's Dilemma," in The Doctors Dilemma, Getting Jvfarried, 6- The Shewing-Up of Blanco Posnet, act 1 (London: Constable and Company, 1911).80 Fogelson, Big- City Police, 136 and 138.81 Fogelson, Big- City Police, 143; and Seymour Martin Lipset, "Why Cops Hate Liberals-AndVice Versa," in The Police Rebellion, ed. William J. Bopp (Springfield, IL: Charles C. Thomas,Publisher, 1971), 30.82 Richardson, Urban Police, 1371 38. By 1940, half of the new recruits to the NYPD had bachelor'sdegrees. This marked a significant change since the time before the Depression, when many policemanhad never been to high school (6 percent in New Yo rk) . Richardson, Urban Police, 138 and 135.83 Raben F. Wintersmirh, Police and the B!dck C.ommunity (Lexington, MA: Lexington Books, 19(4) , 65---66.84 Fogelson, Big- City Police, 144 146.85 Fogelson, Big- City Police, 150IS2.86 Fogelson, Big-City Police, 154155. Sociologists identifY professions hy six characteristics: (1)skills based on theoretical knowledge; (2) education and training; (3) competence ensured byexaminations; (4) a code of ethics; (5) provision of a service fo r the public good; and, (6) aprofessional association that organizes members. In Nicholas Abercrombie et aI., ihe PenguinDictionary of Sociology (London: Penguin Books, 2000), S.\'. "Profession."87 Fogelson, Big-City Police, 158; and Richardson, Urban Police, 131.88 Fogelson, Big-City Police, 223225.89 Lundman, Police and Policing, 180.90 Fogelson, Big- City Police, 225.91 Fogelson, Big- City Police, 227.92 Fogelson, Big-City Police, 271; and Lundrnan, Police and i'olicing, 181,93 During the 1960s and 1970s, African Americans and Puerto Ricans sued departments in Boston,Philadelphia, and Oakland, arguing that the entrance requirements were discriminatory. Fogelson,Big-City Police, 230.94 Fogelson, Big- City Police, 227.95 The insistence that commanders be drawn from the tanks greatly limited the pool of applicants,reduced rhe possibilities for innovative leadership, and institutionalized the existing police culture.The arrangement also solidified the sense of unity between beat cops and their supervisors,with predictable results for discipline. See: Fogelson, Big-City Police, 229.96 Lundman, Police and PoliCing, 181.271