Kristian Williams - Our Enemies in Blue - Police and Power in America

while in theory each police force was accountable to the General Council, inpractice they were solely controlled by the district government and little effortwas made to coordinate among them. 177The General Council met only once each year, leaving the practical managementof the city's affairs to municipal councils. 178 This arrangement actuallyexacerbated the ethnic tensions that led to the city's division in the first place,and neighborhood rivalries now found official expression in the structure ofgovernment.179 In effect, the two sets of changes-fragmentation of the citygovernment and re-structuring of the police-laid the groundwork for thedevelopment of neighborhood-based and ethnocentric political machines, withthe police taking a central role.During the 1840s and early 1850s control of the police force had becomean increasingly important issue in municipal politics because of its valueas a source of patronage and its influence in elections. After the restorationof unitary government in the city in 1852, the police played an evenlarger role in the manipulation of elections and resorted more frequentlyto intimidation and violence. ISOEven after formal consolidation in 1852, the police functioned as separate, districtbasedorganizations, controlled more by local political bosses than the generalcity government. 1 81The machines' influence was palpable. For example, when the American Party(the "Know-Nothings") gained control of the city in March 1855, they immediatelyremoved all immigrants from the police force, reducing it from 450 to 265 members.182After that, the police stood aside while Know-Nothings prevented immigrantsfrom voting, and sometimes aided in the effort 183 Opposition parties likewisefought for control of the poils. In the election of June 1858, a Vigilance Committeeseized the state arsenal and police headquarters, with the stated purpose of ensuring a fair election.184 Similar actions were taken in 1888 by the Young Men'sDemocratic Club, who-armed with rifles-surrounded the polls to prevent Know­Nothings and police from interfering with Democratic partyvoters.185Corruption didn't end at the polls. Less politically driven misconduct was alsocommon. Naturally, vice laws created opportunities for corruption at all levels,and throughout the nineteenth century scandals were common. In 1854, a newchief, William James, began a vigorous campaign to enforce the laws againstgambling, liquor, and other vice crimes. As his reward, the Board of Police firedhim and eliminated his office.186Meanwhile, though state law forbade carrying concealed weapons and madeno exception for police, many cops did begin carr ying guns, especially revolvers,illicitly. This practice was condoned and sometimes advocated by supervisors,and eventually gained the mayor's approval as well. Predictably, a lack of trainingled to numerous accidents, often with police casualties.187Brutality and violence were also common, and during the 1850s severalNew Orleans cops were tried for murder. Most of these cases involved personaldisputes, and the victims were frequently cops themselves.188Less severe episodes of violence were legion. In a sample of cases coveringa twenty-one-month period during 1854-1856, the Board of Policeadjudicated forty-three cases of assault, assault and battery, or brutal-49