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getting it done 231recently been enhanced by the creation of UN expert panels mandatedby the Security Council to conduct independent investigations ofsanctions violations.The imposition of international trade sanctions on a multilateralbasis under the aegis of the United Nations is a relatively new phenomenon.During the cold war, the ability of the five permanent membersof the UN Security Council to veto any such resolution generallyprevented these measures. The only clear exception over that periodwas sanctions imposed in 1966 against “the illegal racist [minority]régime in Southern Rhodesia” with a view to secure the “freedom andindependence” of its population. 5 The UN economic sanctions againstIraq in 1990, aimed at securing Iraq’s withdrawal from Kuwait andthen disarmament of its weapons of mass destruction, opened a newera. Since then, UN sanctions or monitoring measures targeting naturalresources have been imposed on nine occasions (table 6.2). Timber,oil, and precious gems have been the most frequently targetedresources. Sanctions have been imposed generally in an effort to curtailthe financial means available to rebel factions or to entice thesefactions to sign or implement a peace agreement. When the commodityinvolved is already illegal on the international market, the SecurityCouncil has attempted to curtail items necessary for its production.For example, in the case of heroin in the Afghan conflict and internationalterrorism links, the Security Council attempted to curtail theprovision of chemicals used in the production process.Very few implementation measures have involved ground policingthrough military deployment by member states or UN peacekeepingmissions. However, there have been at least two cases of militarydeployment. First, between 1966 and 1975, the British Navy attemptedto enforce a naval blockade on the importation of oil by Rhodesia,mostly through the port of Beira. Although the high-profile blockadewas ineffectual, the British government did not end it until Mozambiquegained independence and assured the United Nations that no oil wouldreach Rhodesia through its territory (Mobley 2002). Second, immediatelyafter the Iraqi invasion of Kuwait in 1990, the Security Councilimposed a sanctions regime to block Iraqi oil exports. The MultinationalInterception Force led by the U.S. Navy acts under SecurityCouncil Resolution 665 (1990) to interdict all maritime traffic to andfrom Iraq to ensure the strict implementation of sanctions. Iraqi oilexports declined 90 percent between 1990 and 1995, crippling itseconomy. 6 Yet Saddam Hussein proved sufficiently resilient and unconcernedby the plight of his population to withstand sanctions that wereprogressively eroded by the Oil-for-Food Program and smuggling. 7 Bythe late 1990s, oil smuggling brought in annual revenues in excess of
232 philippe le billonTable 6.2 UN Security Council Sanctions against NaturalResource ExportsYear Country Resolution1966 SouthernRhodesiaS/RES/232 (1966) and 253 (1968): allcommodities1990 IraqS/RES/661 (1990): all commodities; S/RES/665(1990): calls for halting, inspecting, andverifying all maritime shipping in the Gulf areato ensure strict implementation of S/RES/661199119921993199419982000200020002001YugoslaviaCambodiaLibyaHaitiAngolaAfghanistanCongo,Dem.Rep. ofSierraLeoneLiberiaS/RES/757 (1991) and 787 (1992): all commoditiesS/RES/792 (1992): log exports; requests theadoption of an embargo on minerals and gemsexports and the implementation measures byUN Transitional Authority in CambodiaS/RES/883 (1993): bans the provision to Libya ofequipment for oil refining and transportationS/RES/917 (1994): all commoditiesS/RES/1173 (1998): all diamonds outsidegovernment certificate-of-origin regime and theprovision of mining equipment and servicesto areas not under government control;S/RES/1237 (1999): establishes an expert panel;S/RES/1295 (2000): establishes a mechanism formonitoring sanctionsS/RES/1333 (2000): bans the provision to Talibancontrolledareas of acetic anhydride used inheroin productionS/PRST/2000/20: establishes an expert panel onthe illegal exploitation of natural resourcesand other forms of wealthS/RES/1306 (2000): all rough diamonds pendingan effective regime of government certificatesof origin; creates an expert panel on theimplementation of sanctionsS/RES/1343 (2001): all rough diamonds:establishes an expert panel; S/RES/1408 (2002):calls for establishment by the government ofLiberia of transparent and internationallyverifiable audit regimes on use of timberindustry revenues
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Public Disclosure AuthorizedOptions
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Natural Resourcesand ViolentConflic
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ContentsPrefaceContributorsAcronyms
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PrefaceRECENT RESEARCH UNDERTAKEN B
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prefacexiespecially Nicholas Stern,
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xivcontributorsSylviane Guillaumont
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Acronyms and AbbreviationsAUCCCAMLR
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chapter 1Natural Resources andConfl
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natural resources and conflict 3Fig
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natural resources and conflict 5rig
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natural resources and conflict 7War
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natural resources and conflict 9pro
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natural resources and conflict 11ag
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natural resources and conflict 13ar
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natural resources and conflict 15re
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chapter 2The Natural Resource Curse
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20 michael rossEconomic GrowthIt ma
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22 michael ross12 of the 20 as “h
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24 michael rossvolatile than the pr
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26 michael rossby the military, giv
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28 michael rosswars in regions that
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30 michael rossIncrease Transparenc
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32 michael ross• InSierra Leone i
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34 michael rossgroups have also tur
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36 michael rossgenerate extraordina
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38 michael rossand arms to the Nati
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40 michael rossHegre, Håvard. 2002
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42 michael rossRelation to Sierra L
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44 swanson, oldgard, and lundemeani
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46 swanson, oldgard, and lunde(U.K.
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48 swanson, oldgard, and lunderesou
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50 swanson, oldgard, and lundeinfor
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52 swanson, oldgard, and lundeon of
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54 swanson, oldgard, and lundeFund
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56 swanson, oldgard, and lundecompa
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58 swanson, oldgard, and lundeSimil
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60 swanson, oldgard, and lundeThe f
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62 swanson, oldgard, and lundeorgan
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64 swanson, oldgard, and lundeThere
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66 swanson, oldgard, and lundenongo
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68 swanson, oldgard, and lundefrom
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72 swanson, oldgard, and lundeflows
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74 swanson, oldgard, and lundeBox 3
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76 swanson, oldgard, and lundepayme
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78 swanson, oldgard, and lundePolic
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82 swanson, oldgard, and lundethe U
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84 swanson, oldgard, and lundegover
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86 swanson, oldgard, and lundeNever
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88 swanson, oldgard, and lundeleast
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90 swanson, oldgard, and lundecondi
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92 swanson, oldgard, and lunde27. S
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94 swanson, oldgard, and lunde—
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96 swanson, oldgard, and lunde—
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98 crossin, hayman, and taylorThere
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100 crossin, hayman, and taylorTabl
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102 crossin, hayman, and taylor•
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104 crossin, hayman, and taylorThus
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106 crossin, hayman, and taylorCTRs
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108 crossin, hayman, and taylorIn e
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110 crossin, hayman, and taylorto h
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112 crossin, hayman, and taylorCert
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116 crossin, hayman, and taylorBox
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118 crossin, hayman, and taylorA la
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120Table 4.2 Forest Product Monitor
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122Table 4.2 (continued)Technology
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124 crossin, hayman, and taylorthat
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126 crossin, hayman, and taylorprov
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130 crossin, hayman, and taylorinte
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132 crossin, hayman, and taylorThe
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134 crossin, hayman, and taylorMixi
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136 crossin, hayman, and taylorsmug
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138 crossin, hayman, and taylorof t
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140 crossin, hayman, and taylorlabe
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146 crossin, hayman, and taylorcomm
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chapter 5Follow the Money: The Fina
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follow the money 163existing standa
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follow the money 165various institu
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follow the money 167portion of the
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follow the money 169funded their wa
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follow the money 171• Use undergr
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follow the money 173EmbargoesAn ong
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follow the money 175violating secto
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follow the money 177category. Howev
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follow the money 179of weapons and
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Page 202 and 203: follow the money 183The resolution
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Page 208 and 209: follow the money 189in general, not
Page 210 and 211: follow the money 191Current capacit
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Page 216 and 217: follow the money 197lawful purpose,
Page 218 and 219: follow the money 199in criminal mat
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Page 238 and 239: getting it done 219Fourth, under ce
Page 240 and 241: getting it done 221The proliferatio
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Page 244 and 245: Table 6.1 Overview of International
Page 246 and 247: 227CertificationregimesKimberleyCer
Page 248 and 249: getting it done 229instruments, and
Page 252 and 253: getting it done 233$500 million. 8
Page 254 and 255: getting it done 235The argument tha
Page 256 and 257: getting it done 237legislation and
Page 258 and 259: getting it done 239Many observers a
Page 260 and 261: getting it done 241International Le
Page 262 and 263: getting it done 243panels could pro
Page 264 and 265: getting it done 245international ro
Page 266 and 267: getting it done 247scheme is now ir
Page 268 and 269: getting it done 249of forest resour
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Page 272 and 273: getting it done 253peace agreements
Page 274 and 275: getting it done 2551997 and 2001 (
Page 276 and 277: getting it done 257themselves with
Page 278 and 279: getting it done 259Box 6.3 Mandator
Page 280 and 281: getting it done 261agencies, and ci
Page 282 and 283: getting it done 263enterprises coul
Page 284 and 285: getting it done 265ethical investme
Page 286 and 287: getting it done 267Advocacy groups
Page 288 and 289: getting it done 269principles, with
Page 290 and 291: getting it done 271more sexy than l
Page 292 and 293: getting it done 273to focus the att
Page 294 and 295: getting it done 275Given that it de
Page 296 and 297: getting it done 277The assessments
Page 298 and 299: getting it done 27925. See www.inte
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getting it done 281ReferencesThe wo
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getting it done 283Harden, Blain. 2
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getting it done 285Africa: Assessin
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chapter 7Attracting Reputable Compa
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attracting reputable companies 289h
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attracting reputable companies 291i
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attracting reputable companies 293b
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attracting reputable companies 295t
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attracting reputable companies 297T
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attracting reputable companies 301S
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attracting reputable companies 303h
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attracting reputable companies 307o
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attracting reputable companies 315e
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attracting reputable companies 317I
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attracting reputable companies 321i
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attracting reputable companies 325$
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attracting reputable companies 327
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attracting reputable companies 329m
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attracting reputable companies 331t
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attracting reputable companies 333L
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attracting reputable companies 335a
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attracting reputable companies 337N
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attracting reputable companies 343s
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attracting reputable companies 345a
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attracting reputable companies 347G
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attracting reputable companies 349W
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attracting reputable companies 351A
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chapter 8Dampening Price ShocksPatr
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dampening price shocks 355in lower
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dampening price shocks 357the agree
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dampening price shocks 359common re
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dampening price shocks 361flexibili
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dampening price shocks 363create a
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dampening price shocks 365different
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dampening price shocks 367———
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370 indexand Pakistan, 170; possibl
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372 index“Dutch disease,” 82; r
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374 indexeconomic rationale for, 34
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376 indexor regional arrangements,
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378 indexstandards and norms, 172,1
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380 indexEmbargoes: and black marke
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382 indexRUF-controlled areas in Si
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384 indexForest Law Enforcement and
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386 indexGreater Nile Petroleum Ope
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388 indexInformation technology:
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390 indexand reputation, 294-97; mi
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392 indexLiberia audit its use of r
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394 indexMorley Fund Management:inv
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396 indexOffice of the High Commiss
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398 indexPolicy recommendations for
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400 indexnatural resource revenues,
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402 indexSri Lanka: double agenda o
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404 indexover-allocation of logging
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406 index156-57 n7; pilot program t
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408 indexWal-Mart: child labor rest
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Violent conflict can spell catastro
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