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Review <strong>of</strong> <strong>the</strong> <strong>literature</strong> on basic education in NigeriaMLA (FME 2004b), although <strong>the</strong> mean combined score <strong>of</strong> 27.4% (as opposed to 24.9%) led <strong>the</strong> panel toconclude that overall performances were ‘very poor’ whe<strong>the</strong>r in private or public schools.The case studies by Larbi et al. (2004) in Lagos and Enugu found that many private schools have anursery school attached, and also stay open after school hours providing childcare.7.3.3 Fees and equity concernsOne <strong>of</strong> <strong>the</strong> main concerns regarding private schooling surrounds issues <strong>of</strong> equity and cost. Although freepublic schooling is not actually free, given <strong>the</strong> cost <strong>of</strong> books and uniforms, PTA levies and o<strong>the</strong>r schoolcharges (Urwick 2002; Lincove 2009; NPC and RTI International 2011), public schools are still generallycheaper than low-fee private schools (NPC and RTI International 2011).The 2010 NEDS concluded that mean household costs per pupil for private primary education farexceeded those for government schooling (which had halved on average since 2004), particularly fortuition fees and school development levies; however, costs were only slightly higher on average foruniforms, books and supplies (NPC and RTI International, 2011). On <strong>the</strong> o<strong>the</strong>r hand, most low-fee privateschools (at least in Lagos State) generally complete <strong>the</strong> primary curriculum in five years, <strong>the</strong>reby allowinghouseholds to save a year’s expenditure (Härmä 2011a.)Tooley and Dixon (2005) found that average term fees for Lagos’ private low-fee primary schools werearound USD 30. They also found that <strong>the</strong> fees for unregistered schools were consistently lower than forapproved schools. In addition, around 3% <strong>of</strong> places in private schools were free places and just less thanan additional 2% were concessionary (Tooley et al. 2005).Härmä (2011b) concurred regarding fees for Lagos private schools, reporting an average total annual feeat approved schools <strong>of</strong> 48% <strong>of</strong> <strong>the</strong> minimum wage, and at unapproved schools <strong>of</strong> 20% <strong>of</strong> <strong>the</strong> minimumwage. Even so, she found that many <strong>of</strong> <strong>the</strong> poorest families were not able to afford even <strong>the</strong> very lowfeeprivate schools (ibid.). Adams and Arowojolu’s study (2008) in Ogun State found that cost did notdeter many parents from enrolling <strong>the</strong>ir wards or children in low-fee private education provided o<strong>the</strong>rquality criteria were met.In terms <strong>of</strong> gender, <strong>the</strong> 2011/12 Lagos ASC reports that girls make up 50% <strong>of</strong> private primary schoolstudents, compared to just 33% <strong>of</strong> public primary students. Härmä (2011c) too found gender parity inattendance at private schools in Kwara State and for all except <strong>the</strong> very poorest families in Lagos State(Härmä 2011b).Never<strong>the</strong>less, <strong>the</strong>re are also equity concerns regarding teaching staff (Härmä 2013). Teachers in Lagoswere found to be paid more than three times as much at government schools (USD 130 per month) thanat private schools (less than USD 40 per month) (Tooley et al. 2005), although most teachers in low-feeprivate schools were unqualified. Government teachers also have greater job security whereas teachersin low-fee private schools can be hired and fired at will (Härmä 2013).7.3.4 RegulationIn general, although <strong>of</strong>ficial policy encourages <strong>the</strong> role <strong>of</strong> <strong>the</strong> private sector in <strong>the</strong> provision <strong>of</strong>education, <strong>the</strong> relationship between private schools and government can be antagonistic, involvingthreats <strong>of</strong> closure for unregistered schools and excessive regulation (Larbi et al. 2004; Kingsmill et al.2012). In some states, registered private schools have lobbied <strong>the</strong> government for <strong>the</strong> closure <strong>of</strong>unregistered schools so as to limit competition (Larbi et al. 2004).One <strong>of</strong> <strong>the</strong> problems <strong>of</strong> gaining government approval is that it is costly and <strong>the</strong> stipulations are difficultto fulfil (Härmä 2011b); indeed, in Härmä’s Lagos census most government schools failed to fulfil <strong>the</strong>EDOREN – Education Data, Research and Evaluation in Nigeria 73
Review <strong>of</strong> <strong>the</strong> <strong>literature</strong> on basic education in Nigeriarequirements demanded <strong>of</strong> private schools (ibid.). Moreover, government frequently does not havecapacity for effective supervision <strong>of</strong> ei<strong>the</strong>r public or private schools (Larbi et al. 2004).7.4 Christian schoolingMission schools provided much <strong>of</strong> <strong>the</strong> first education available in Nigeria, but many <strong>of</strong> <strong>the</strong>se schoolswere nationalised in <strong>the</strong> 1970s (Larbi et al. 2004). There has more recently been a trend in many statestoward re-privatising many <strong>of</strong> <strong>the</strong>se schools, in <strong>the</strong> hope <strong>of</strong> improving <strong>the</strong> quality <strong>of</strong> education (Oguntola2012).There is, however, very little research on <strong>the</strong> prevalence <strong>of</strong> Christian schools and no statistics onenrolment, attendance, or quality.7.5 Islamic schoolingThe majority <strong>of</strong> <strong>the</strong> OOSC in Nigeria live in <strong>the</strong> north <strong>of</strong> <strong>the</strong> country. However, four out <strong>of</strong> five <strong>of</strong> thoseso-called ‘out-<strong>of</strong>-school’ children receive some kind <strong>of</strong> Islamic education (Antoninis 2012). For thisreason, one <strong>of</strong> <strong>the</strong> national policy goals in education is ‘<strong>the</strong> integration <strong>of</strong> basic education to <strong>the</strong>programme <strong>of</strong> Qur’anic schools, to ensure equal opportunity and effective implementation <strong>of</strong> UBE’ (FME2004a: 5).As mentioned in Chapter 2 (see Box 2.1), <strong>the</strong>re are two main forms <strong>of</strong> Islamic school in Nigeria –traditional Qur’anic schools that focus on <strong>the</strong> memorisation <strong>of</strong> <strong>the</strong> Qur’an and are typically moreinformal, and Islamiyya schools, introduced in <strong>the</strong> 1950s, which go beyond <strong>the</strong> Qur’an to cover o<strong>the</strong>rIslamic subjects, such as <strong>the</strong> Fiqh (Islamic jurisprudence) and <strong>the</strong> Hadith (sayings <strong>of</strong> <strong>the</strong> prophet), andfollow a more formal structure in terms <strong>of</strong> time schedules and approaches to teaching. Some but not allIslamiyya schools are ‘integrated’ and also <strong>of</strong>fer secular subjects and receive government support(Antoninis 2012). Some <strong>of</strong> <strong>the</strong> Tsangaya schools are also beginning to <strong>of</strong>fer some secular curriculumsubjects, <strong>of</strong>ten taught on <strong>the</strong> Thursday and Friday when <strong>the</strong> Tsangaya schools usually do not operate(UBEC 2010). Box 7.1 explains how <strong>the</strong> system works in Bauchi and Sokoto.Box 7.1 Overview <strong>of</strong> IQTE schools in Bauchi and SokotoIQTE schools were included in <strong>the</strong> 2013 EGRA/EGMA to gain insight into levels <strong>of</strong> learning within thiscomplementary basic education system. The purpose <strong>of</strong> <strong>the</strong> IQTE schools, which are designated toreceive government support, is to integrate elements <strong>of</strong> <strong>the</strong> basic education curriculum intotraditional Qur’anic education. IQTE school oversight is provided by SUBEB, <strong>the</strong> Adult Non-FormalEducation Agency (ANFEA), and <strong>the</strong> State Agency for Mass Education (SAME) (in Sokoto, <strong>the</strong> Ministryfor Religious Affairs also plays a role). IQTE schools are divided into stages (as opposed to grades),which cover <strong>the</strong> following subjects:Stage 1: This stage lasts for one year, with curriculum material designed to be <strong>the</strong> equivalent <strong>of</strong>P1–P3 <strong>of</strong> formal schools. Subjects taught are local language literacy and numeracy, in addition toArabic and Islamic foundation studies.Stage 2: This stage lasts for two years, with curriculum material designed to be <strong>the</strong> equivalent <strong>of</strong>P4–P6. Subjects taught are Literacy (including English), Ma<strong>the</strong>matics, Basic Science, Life Skills, andSocial Studies, plus Arabic and Foundation Studies.Specific ages for each stage are not identified. A minimum <strong>of</strong> four contact hours per week isdesignated to implement <strong>the</strong> curriculum. Although IQTE head teachers (proprietors) may not havepreviously taught in formal schools, almost all <strong>the</strong> teachers for <strong>the</strong> basic education subjects arerecruited from <strong>the</strong> formal basic education schools, and <strong>the</strong> SUBEB is designated to pay <strong>the</strong>ir salaries.Data collected during EGRA/EGMA revealed that many children attend both government and IQTEEDOREN – Education Data, Research and Evaluation in Nigeria 74
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