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Review <strong>of</strong> <strong>the</strong> <strong>literature</strong> on basic education in Nigeriaend up teaching in primary schools, and vice versa. He cites a tracer study in which 15% <strong>of</strong> NCEgraduates who specialised in primary education ended up being deployed to secondary schools, and60% <strong>of</strong> subject specialist NCE graduates ended up posted to primary schools. Thomas’ (2011) morerecent study for ESSPIN in Kwara and Jigawa states had similar findings, as well as highlighting <strong>the</strong> needfor a more systematic process for determining supply and demand. Thomas also suggests that schoolsshould be more involved in <strong>the</strong> recruitment process and that teachers should be able to express <strong>the</strong>irpreference (ibid.).10.4 Pay, conditions and teacher motivationStudies across Nigeria have shown that low teacher motivation (e.g. Adelabu 2005; Adekola 2007;Sherry 2008; Dunne et al. 2013) <strong>of</strong>ten lies at <strong>the</strong> root <strong>of</strong> widespread teacher absenteeism, described as‘endemic’ in some public primary schools, especially in rural areas, and is also <strong>the</strong> cause <strong>of</strong> high rates <strong>of</strong>teacher attrition (Urwick and Aliyu 2003). The FME recognises this, and <strong>the</strong> fact that in part it is due tolow pay, inadequate teacher support and inadequate school infrastructure (FME 2009a).Box 10.1 The general view <strong>of</strong> teachers in NigeriaGET OUT OF TEACHING AND LOOK FOR A JOB• Suitor’s family spokesman: A-salama-leikun, my people. May I introduce my young man,Ahmadu Tijani. Stand and be seen, Tijani• Tijani (Standing): A-salama-leikun, my elders• Spokesman: As you are well aware, we have come to ask for <strong>the</strong> hands <strong>of</strong> your daughter,Amina, in marriage• Amina’s Fa<strong>the</strong>r: La-kuli-lai! Tijani has grown so big! Looks every inch like hisgrandfa<strong>the</strong>r. What does he do for a living?• Tijani (timidly): I teach at Government Secondary School, Azare.• Amina’s Fa<strong>the</strong>r: Huuum! Well, you are from a good family. I’ll give you my daughter,but… LISTEN CAREFULLYSource: FME (2011)Promise me that you’ll look for a job!Teacher pay and conditions are almost universally reported to be <strong>the</strong> main source <strong>of</strong> dissatisfactionamong teachers, although <strong>the</strong> 2004 ESA identified teaching’s low status as more important to bothprimary and secondary teachers (FME 2005; also see Box 10.1). A mixed-methods study on teachers’voice (Sherry 2008) was carried out across <strong>the</strong> six geo-political zones and <strong>the</strong> FCT, involving teachersfrom public and private primary schools and JSSs, including nomadic and special schools, as well as o<strong>the</strong>reducational stakeholders. Teachers generally felt undervalued and neglected by government, havingbeen excluded from <strong>the</strong> decision-making process, and had <strong>the</strong>refore lost trust in government. The mainissues that demotivate teachers relate to pay and conditions: Low pay, especially in comparison with o<strong>the</strong>r civil servants (Adelabu 2005; FME 2005; Adekola 2007;Sherry 2008; UBEC 2012a; Dunne et al. 2013; FME 2011a);Low pay is compounded in some cases by high accommodation costs and high transport costs toreach school (Sherry 2008);There are delays in payments in some states, partly due to <strong>the</strong> multiple layers <strong>of</strong> responsibility in adecentralised government and to politicised payments (see Chapter 6) (Adelabu 2005; Sherry 2008;Dunne et al. 2013);EDOREN – Education Data, Research and Evaluation in Nigeria 117
Review <strong>of</strong> <strong>the</strong> <strong>literature</strong> on basic education in NigeriaSalary delays sometimes result in teachers having to seek alternative employment 28 (<strong>the</strong>reforeadversely affecting educational quality) until <strong>the</strong>y are paid (Adelabu 2005);Salary structures currently vary by state and depend on which level oversees <strong>the</strong> school, although<strong>the</strong> FME and <strong>the</strong> National Union <strong>of</strong> Teachers are aiming to implement a standardised teachers’salary scale (TSS) (see below); Salaries can even vary within <strong>the</strong> school, depending on who you know (Dunne et al. 2013); Promotion is based on qualifications and years <strong>of</strong> service ra<strong>the</strong>r than competence (Adelabu 2005;Adekola 2007; FME 2011a), a situation that is exacerbated by <strong>the</strong> lack <strong>of</strong> agreed teaching standardsor benchmarks against which to make objective assessments (FME 2005; Adekola 2007; Thomas2011); There is no system <strong>of</strong> incentives and promotion (FME 2005; Adekola 2007; Sherry 2008; FME 2011a;Thomas 2011); The salary increase due after teachers upgrade <strong>the</strong>ir qualifications is <strong>of</strong>ten not paid (Adekola 2007);andFringe benefits, such as loans for accommodation and transport, vary according to state and are<strong>of</strong>ten not received (Adelabu 2005).O<strong>the</strong>r factors identified that have been found to adversely affect teacher motivation include:Poor and unsafe physical teaching conditions: dilapidated schools that lack water, toilet facilities andelectricity, and are unfenced (Urwick and Aliyu 2003; Adelabu 2005; FME 2005; Sherry 2008; Dunneet al. 2013);Overcrowded classrooms (Urwick and Aliyu 2003; Adelabu 2005; FME 2005; Sherry 2008; Boulton etal. 2009; Dunne et al. 2013); Lack <strong>of</strong> teaching materials, such as textbooks (FME 2005; Sherry 2008; Dunne et al. 2013);Lack <strong>of</strong> teacher involvement in policy-making and/or lack <strong>of</strong> information on new policies, especiallyin rural areas (Urwick and Aliyu 2003; Sherry 2008);Lack <strong>of</strong> supervision, pr<strong>of</strong>essional support and opportunities for pr<strong>of</strong>essional development (Sherry2008; FME 2011a; Thomas 2011);Teacher dissatisfaction with some head teacher appointments when not based on merit (Sherry2008; Dunne et al. 2013);Teacher dissatisfaction with head teacher behaviour, e.g. not supporting teachers where <strong>the</strong>re isconflict with parents (Sherry, 2008; Dunne et al. 2013); Teacher transfers without warning and no resettlement allowance (Sherry 2008);Teachers feeling that <strong>the</strong>y have been abandoned/neglected by government (Sherry 2008; Dunne etal. 2013); and Teachers feeling that <strong>the</strong>y have a low status within society (Adelabu 2005; FME 2005; Sherry 2008;FME 2011a).Analysis <strong>of</strong> <strong>the</strong> questionnaires in <strong>the</strong> teachers’ voice study (Sherry 2008) also found that teachers inurban areas were slightly more motivated, as were female teachers, which was attributed to <strong>the</strong> lowsalary being <strong>of</strong>fset by <strong>the</strong> fact that teaching fitted more with family responsibilities, whereas for maleteachers, who were generally <strong>the</strong> main breadwinners, <strong>the</strong> low salary was paramount. Teachers desiredincentives such as health care and accommodation (which used to be provided), especially for ruralareas (ibid.).28It should also be noted that in <strong>the</strong> 2004 ESA many teachers reported that <strong>the</strong>y had supplementary income: almost half said<strong>the</strong>y also farmed and over a quarter said <strong>the</strong>y traded (FME 2005). The extent to which this was on account <strong>of</strong> delayed paymentsor on account <strong>of</strong> <strong>the</strong> need or desire for more income is not known.EDOREN – Education Data, Research and Evaluation in Nigeria 118
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