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Review <strong>of</strong> <strong>the</strong> <strong>literature</strong> on basic education in NigeriaEgbochuku’s study (2007) – which encompassed three government and three private/mission schools –found that almost 80% <strong>of</strong> pupils admitted to being bullied and an even higher percentage admitted tobullying o<strong>the</strong>rs. Boys generally reported higher levels <strong>of</strong> bullying and being bullied, with older boys <strong>the</strong>main culprits, but over half <strong>the</strong> girls surveyed admitted to bullying too. In <strong>the</strong> all-boys school in Bakari’s(2013) qualitative study in Kogi State, an unspoken code <strong>of</strong> ‘seniority’ was reported that enabled olderboys to send younger ones on errands, which if refused resulted in <strong>the</strong> younger boys being punished.Similarly, older boys would sometimes take food or money from younger boys, who were too afraid toreport <strong>the</strong> matter to teachers for fear <strong>of</strong> reprisals.Egbochuku’s study (2007) also investigated where <strong>the</strong> main trouble spots were. Most bullying took placein <strong>the</strong> playground (40%) for both girls and boys, although in <strong>the</strong> government schools <strong>the</strong> figure washigher in <strong>the</strong> classroom; classroom bullying averaged 23% while 15% on average claimed <strong>the</strong>y weresusceptible to bullying on <strong>the</strong> way home (see also Coinco 2012; Dunne et al. 2013), although this figurewas double for girls. The fact that three-quarters <strong>of</strong> <strong>the</strong> bullying was said to be by pupils from higherclasses and yet such a high percentage occurred in <strong>the</strong> classroom suggests that <strong>the</strong> teacher was <strong>of</strong>tenabsent. However, around half <strong>the</strong> pupils surveyed said <strong>the</strong> teachers always stopped <strong>the</strong> bullying when itwas reported, although given <strong>the</strong> widespread use <strong>of</strong> corporal punishment ‘stopping <strong>the</strong> bullying’ is alsolikely to have involved more physical violence. Adefunke’s study (2010) came to similar conclusions, withjust under 60% <strong>of</strong> pupils being victimised over <strong>the</strong> previous year and over half having experienced oneor more form <strong>of</strong> victimisation. The most commonly reported forms <strong>of</strong> violence that had occurred morethan once were being beaten, slapped, pinched, verbally abused and having property stolen. Youngerpupils were victimised slightly more than older pupils, and boys slightly more than girls.Although nei<strong>the</strong>r Egbochuku’s (2007) or Adefunke’s (2010) study explored <strong>the</strong> effects <strong>of</strong> <strong>the</strong>seexperiences, <strong>the</strong> FME (2007b) survey noted that around 6% <strong>of</strong> respondents admitted missing schoolbecause <strong>of</strong> violence – girls slightly more than boys, and at JSS slightly more than at primary level. Thequalitative data from <strong>the</strong> Adamawa study also suggest that girls might be more affected by bullying and‘teasing’. In addition, pupils reported that bullying could result in a lack <strong>of</strong> concentration in class,absenteeism and dropout from school (Dunne et al. 2013).12.3.3 Over-age pupils, nomads and o<strong>the</strong>r victims <strong>of</strong> bullyingThe Adamawa study also identified over-age pupils, and boys in particular, as being especially prone tobullying and to being bullied (Dunne et al. 2013). This is likely to be an important issue in Muslimcommunities in nor<strong>the</strong>rn Nigeria, in particular, where boys are <strong>of</strong>ten sent to complete a number <strong>of</strong> years<strong>of</strong> Qur’anic education before enrolling in a state primary school as very over-age pupils (Boulton et al.2009; Dunne et al. 2013).Nomadic children too are frequently bullied when attending government schools on account <strong>of</strong> <strong>the</strong>irtraditional clothing, tattoos and adornments (Usman 2006). Usman’s research also reported that in suchcases <strong>the</strong> Fulani boys generally do not complain or tell <strong>the</strong>ir parents but instead ignore <strong>the</strong>ir peers andtake a break from school. In <strong>the</strong> few cases that <strong>the</strong>y reported bullying, teachers tended to ignore <strong>the</strong>ircomplaints, resorting to <strong>the</strong> ‘boys-will-be-boys’ explanatory discourse (Usman 2006).Almajirai too are <strong>of</strong>ten bullied because <strong>of</strong> <strong>the</strong>ir unkempt appearance (Usman 2008), as are children withdisabilities, such as epileptics (Antonowicz et al. 2010). Given that prefects <strong>of</strong>ten physically punishpupils, it is unsurprising that prefects are also reportedly bullied sometimes (Dunne et al. 2013).12.3.4 Sexual harassmentAs discussed more fully in Section 8.3, sexual harassment <strong>of</strong> female pupils/students by malepupils/students (as well as by teachers and community members) is a concern widely voiced by pupils,although seemingly underreported by adults (FME 2007b; ActionAid 2011; Bakari 2013). The TEGINTEDOREN – Education Data, Research and Evaluation in Nigeria 143
Review <strong>of</strong> <strong>the</strong> <strong>literature</strong> on basic education in Nigeriaproject’s baseline study in eight states in nor<strong>the</strong>rn Nigeria noted that little <strong>of</strong>ficial action was reportedlytaken where harassment and violence was reported (ActionAid 2011), although action against <strong>the</strong>perpetrators, when taken, did include physical punishment. After <strong>the</strong> project, following a number <strong>of</strong>gender-awareness interventions among girls, school and community members, only a slight increase in<strong>the</strong> number <strong>of</strong> formal disciplinary measures taken against <strong>the</strong> ‘<strong>of</strong>fenders’ was reported in a handful <strong>of</strong>schools (ActionAid 2012).The need for ‘safe spaces’ for children to talk about such issues as sexual harassment and bullying, aswell as a need for student counselling in general, has been highlighted (FME 2005; FME 2007b; FME2011a; Little and Lewis 2012). The GEP-initiated Student Tutoring, Mentoring and Counsellingprogramme is aimed at addressing such needs, but has stalled in its implementation (UNICEF 2012).12.4 Issues arising and gaps in <strong>the</strong> evidenceAside from a sizeable number <strong>of</strong> studies on corporal punishment and bullying, <strong>the</strong>re is a dearth <strong>of</strong>research – both quantitative and qualitative – on pupil management, including timetabling, patterns <strong>of</strong>attendance, and on pupils’ experiences and interactions in schools in Nigeria. This is a critical area forresearch as positive teacher–pupil and pupil–pupil relations are vital to improving educational quality,assuring retention, and achieving gender equality through ‘child-friendly’ schools (UNICEF 2009b).There are clearly high levels <strong>of</strong> violence in schools that threaten pupil retention and educational qualityand which are as important to address as any focus on <strong>the</strong> technical aspects <strong>of</strong> pedagogicalimprovement.Much more information is needed on pupils’ lives inside (and outside) school and <strong>the</strong>ir views on variousaspects <strong>of</strong> school life, including peer relations and <strong>the</strong> ways in which gender, religion, ethnicity, socioeconomicstatus and age have an impact on pupils.Research is also needed on <strong>the</strong> availability and effectiveness <strong>of</strong> guidance and counselling services inschools and on students’ experiences <strong>of</strong> <strong>the</strong>m.Some longitudinal tracking <strong>of</strong> individual pupils combined with some time and spatial mapping migh<strong>the</strong>lp to get a deeper understanding <strong>of</strong> <strong>the</strong>ir experiences <strong>of</strong> schooling and <strong>the</strong> reasons for truancy,absenteeism and dropout.Quality <strong>of</strong> evidence:MediumSize <strong>of</strong> body <strong>of</strong>evidence:LowEvidence Strength AssessmentConsistency <strong>of</strong> results:ConsistentOverall assessment:MediumEDOREN – Education Data, Research and Evaluation in Nigeria 144
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