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Review <strong>of</strong> <strong>the</strong> <strong>literature</strong> on basic education in NigeriaTable 10.2 Primary school teachers by gender, qualification and school type, 2010ZONENW 24TotalTeachers147,390PUBLIC%FT %MT %QT%QFT**%QMT***TotalTeachersPRIVATE%FT %MT %QT%QFT*%QMT**26.5 73.5 46.1 25.8 53.5 1,922 45.0 55.0 80.4 74.9 83.2NE 48, 893 24.7 75.3 42.8 55.5 38.6 8,210 36.5 63.5 72.8 75.2 71.4NC 25 105,6135.5 64.5 75.7 98.1 63.5 19,078 44.1 55.9 83.0 78.1 86.79SW 26 87,539 73.3 26.7 98.5 99.2 96.8 16,375 65.0 35.0 93.5 92.9 94.5SS 27 81,070 68.0 32.0 55.4 58.5 48.5 21,177 66.0 34.0 73.7 72.6 75.9SE 49,283 76.7 23.3 77.4 82.2 61.7 9,137 74.0 26.0 74.6 72.7 80.0TOTAL519,79447.3 52.7 65.1 73.5 57.5 75,899 57.6 42.4 80.5 78.8 82.7* FT= female teacher; MT= male teacher; QT = qualified teacher.** The percentage <strong>of</strong> female teachers that are qualified.*** The percentage <strong>of</strong> male teachers that are qualified.Source: FME (2011b)Table 10.2 also shows that <strong>the</strong> national average <strong>of</strong> qualified teachers in <strong>the</strong> private primary sector for2010 is substantially higher than for <strong>the</strong> government sector, at around 80%; this is also <strong>the</strong> case acrossmost regions, except in <strong>the</strong> South West and South East.Female teachers are <strong>of</strong>ten said to be important for increasing female enrolment (see Section 8.5). In <strong>the</strong>public primary sector (see Table 10.2), a far higher proportion <strong>of</strong> teachers in <strong>the</strong> south are women –around three-quarters <strong>of</strong> <strong>the</strong> teaching force in <strong>the</strong> South West and South East. This is in contrast to <strong>the</strong>North West and North East, where only around a quarter <strong>of</strong> public primary teachers are women. Interms <strong>of</strong> qualifications, nationally a higher percentage <strong>of</strong> female teachers are qualified (73.5%) thanmale teachers (57.5%), with a similar pattern across <strong>the</strong> regions, except in <strong>the</strong> North West, where onlyaround a quarter <strong>of</strong> female teachers are qualified, compared to over half <strong>the</strong> male teachers.In <strong>the</strong> private primary sector, <strong>the</strong> situation is reversed, with generally a higher proportion <strong>of</strong> maleteachers qualified than female teachers, except in <strong>the</strong> North East (FME 2011b). Again, however, <strong>the</strong>reare great variations among and within states and data are <strong>of</strong>ten lacking for private schools.The data on teachers for public and private JSSs are even more sparse, especially for private schools,with many states lacking figures, although <strong>the</strong>y suggest a higher proportion <strong>of</strong> qualified teachers in <strong>the</strong>public sector nationally (87.5%) than at primary level, whereas in <strong>the</strong> private sector <strong>the</strong> percentage <strong>of</strong>qualified teachers is lower (76.7%) than at primary level. In broad terms, <strong>the</strong>re is a greater proportion <strong>of</strong>female teachers (in relation to male teachers) in <strong>the</strong> south and a greater proportion <strong>of</strong> male teachers in<strong>the</strong> north, in both <strong>the</strong> private and public sectors at JSS level (FME 2011b).Although it may be an important equity issue to determine who gets access to training for certification,it is equally important to note that possessing a paper qualification is no guarantee <strong>of</strong> greaterpr<strong>of</strong>essional competence (FME 2011a; see also Section 10.5).As regards who teaches which subjects, one <strong>of</strong> <strong>the</strong> 2004 ESA surveys looked at <strong>the</strong> gender and subjectchoice in teacher education institutions and found a high level <strong>of</strong> gender stereotyping. All studentteachers <strong>of</strong> Home Economics were female and over half specialising in primary were also female. In24No data on private schools from Kaduna, Katsina, Sokoto and Jigawa states.25No data recorded from Plateau State and incomplete data on private schools for Kwara, Kogi and Nasarawa states.26No data for private schools from Lagos and Ogun states.27Incomplete data.EDOREN – Education Data, Research and Evaluation in Nigeria 115
Review <strong>of</strong> <strong>the</strong> <strong>literature</strong> on basic education in Nigeriacomparison, female student teachers only comprised 8.2% <strong>of</strong> <strong>the</strong> Maths intake, 6.3% in PhysicalEducation and 3.4 % in Technical Education (FME 2005).There was no available research on teachers’ personal characteristics that might enhance or hinderlearning.10.3 Teacher appointment and deploymentTeacher appointment and deployment is ano<strong>the</strong>r contentious area that affects educational quality.Some states and LGEAs lack qualified teachers; o<strong>the</strong>rs have too many (see Thomas (2011) for acomparison <strong>of</strong> Kwara and Jigawa states, for example). Although teacher shortages can sometimes beattributable to a lack <strong>of</strong> teachers, <strong>the</strong>y are <strong>of</strong>ten due to o<strong>the</strong>r processes, as explained below.Inevitably, <strong>the</strong> lack <strong>of</strong> teachers in many schools results in higher PTRs and overcrowded classes (seeSection 3.4), which can lead to low teacher morale (see below) and to teacher and/or pupil absenteeismand dropout.Qualified teachers are <strong>of</strong>ten lacking in some schools (especially in rural areas), with a surfeit in o<strong>the</strong>rschools (<strong>of</strong>ten more urban ones), for a variety <strong>of</strong> reasons:The overlapping responsibilities for teacher appointment and deployment between SUBEBs andLGEAs and <strong>the</strong> frequent lack <strong>of</strong> trust and communication between <strong>the</strong> two can result in unevendeployment (Adelabu 2005; Williams 2009; see also Box 6.2);Teachers, especially female teachers, <strong>of</strong>ten refuse rural postings or ask for a transfer, usually on <strong>the</strong>grounds <strong>of</strong> needing to be with <strong>the</strong>ir spouse in an urban area (Adelabu 2005); Teachers transferred from rural areas are <strong>of</strong>ten not replaced (Dunne et al. 2013);LGEAs will sometimes deploy or transfer teachers to particular areas as a way <strong>of</strong> spreading politicalpatronage – sometimes because <strong>the</strong>y too are under political pressure (Williams 2009; Dunne et al.2013);Unqualified teachers are sometimes appointed ahead <strong>of</strong> qualified teachers because <strong>the</strong>y arecheaper and <strong>the</strong> LGEA lacks funds (Sherry 2008; Williams 2009; Dunne et al. 2013), but this can havea detrimental effect on teacher morale, which itself affects educational quality (Sherry 2008; Dunneet al. 2013); and There are reports <strong>of</strong> teacher qualifications being faked (Williams 2009).The lack <strong>of</strong> reliable data on teacher numbers and qualifications in particular areas makes it difficult tomonitor and address irregularities and inequities in teacher appointment and deployment (Williams2009). Similarly, while teacher attrition is said to be high (Urwick and Aliyu 2003; Umar 2006), <strong>the</strong>re areno reliable data on teacher attrition rates with which to assess <strong>the</strong> scale and to help identify <strong>the</strong> specificcauses <strong>of</strong> <strong>the</strong> problem. Some states have initiated incentives for rural teachers, although even where<strong>the</strong>y exist on paper <strong>the</strong>y are <strong>of</strong>ten not paid (Adelabu 2005) or are susceptible to favouritism (Sherry2008). The 2004 ESA reported that teachers in 46.5% <strong>of</strong> <strong>the</strong> schools sampled were entitled to a ruralposting allowance, but only in 3.7% <strong>of</strong> <strong>the</strong> schools was <strong>the</strong> allowance said to have been paid (FME 2005).Moreover, as studies elsewhere in SSA have shown, financial incentives have to be substantial tooutweigh <strong>the</strong> social and economic advantages <strong>of</strong> living in an urban area (Mulkeen 2006). In addition, toget <strong>the</strong> best value out <strong>of</strong> incentives <strong>the</strong> classification <strong>of</strong> rural schools needs to be carefully thought outso that <strong>the</strong> most remote and isolated schools are targeted (ibid.).Ano<strong>the</strong>r issue <strong>of</strong> concern is <strong>the</strong> appropriateness <strong>of</strong> teacher deployment and <strong>the</strong> mismatch betweenteacher training specialisations and appointments (FME 2005; Adekola 2007; Thomas 2011). Adekola’s(2007) <strong>review</strong> <strong>of</strong> four years <strong>of</strong> development and research in primary education and teacher educationnotes that most NCE graduates train as subject specialists aimed at secondary school teaching, yet mayEDOREN – Education Data, Research and Evaluation in Nigeria 116
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