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Review <strong>of</strong> <strong>the</strong> <strong>literature</strong> on basic education in NigeriaCHAPTER 1: INTRODUCTION1.1 Aim and scope <strong>of</strong> <strong>the</strong> <strong>review</strong>This <strong>literature</strong> <strong>review</strong> focuses on basic education in Nigeria. Most <strong>of</strong> <strong>the</strong> available research 6 relates topublic primary education and to issues <strong>of</strong> access and enrolment since <strong>the</strong>y have been <strong>the</strong> focus <strong>of</strong> mostrecent development efforts, driven by <strong>the</strong> MDGs. Although private education <strong>of</strong> various types forms anincreasingly important part <strong>of</strong> <strong>the</strong> Nigerian government’s efforts to achieve UBE, <strong>the</strong>re has so far onlybeen limited research on <strong>the</strong> private sector.In particular, <strong>the</strong> <strong>review</strong> examines <strong>the</strong> findings <strong>of</strong> empirical studies concerning factors that affecteducational access, quality, equity and impact. Evidence is drawn from national and internationalstudies on Nigeria, and from two previous major <strong>review</strong>s <strong>of</strong> <strong>the</strong> <strong>literature</strong>: Theobald et al. (2007) andAkyeampong et al. (2009). Also <strong>of</strong> major importance to this analysis is <strong>the</strong> comprehensive EducationSector Analysis (ESA) by <strong>the</strong> FME (FME 2005), which reports on <strong>the</strong> findings <strong>of</strong> 43 studies carried outacross <strong>the</strong> country. These were primarily quantitative surveys involving self-reported data from multiplestakeholders (including learners), with most surveys covering all or most states. Although some <strong>of</strong> <strong>the</strong>recommendations have been or are being addressed, many <strong>of</strong> <strong>the</strong> findings are still <strong>of</strong> relevance now in2014. Consequently, <strong>the</strong> executive findings <strong>of</strong> <strong>the</strong> report as <strong>the</strong>y relate to basic education have beenincluded as an appendix (see Appendix I). The impact assessment <strong>of</strong> 10 years <strong>of</strong> UBE (1999–2009), whichdrew on surveys and focus group discussions <strong>of</strong> a range <strong>of</strong> stakeholders in a ‘low-performing’ and ‘highperforming’state in each <strong>of</strong> <strong>the</strong> geo-political zones, is ano<strong>the</strong>r key source <strong>of</strong> information (UBEC 2012a).Two o<strong>the</strong>r national surveys that inform <strong>the</strong> <strong>review</strong> are <strong>the</strong> 2010 Nigeria Demographic and Health EdDataSurvey – referred to throughout as <strong>the</strong> 2010 NEDS (National Population Commission (NPC) and RTIInternational 2011) – and <strong>the</strong> related 2008 Nigeria Demographic and Health Survey, which is referred toas <strong>the</strong> 2008 NDHS (NPC and ICF Macro 2009).Many <strong>of</strong> <strong>the</strong> international studies (and some <strong>of</strong> <strong>the</strong> national ones) relate to development programmespredominantly located in a variety <strong>of</strong> states in nor<strong>the</strong>rn Nigeria and in Lagos State, in <strong>the</strong> South West. Inparticular, <strong>the</strong> DFID-funded ESSPIN programme has generated a wealth <strong>of</strong> studies, evaluations, positionpapers and o<strong>the</strong>r reports, which have been drawn on extensively in this <strong>review</strong>. Also <strong>of</strong> majorimportance to <strong>the</strong> <strong>review</strong> is <strong>the</strong> recently completed Adamawa State Primary Education Research (Dunneet al. 2013), which was groundbreaking in being a Nigerian state-initiated and fully SUBEB-fundedcollaborative research project, 7 exploring multiple aspects <strong>of</strong> school access, quality and equity, andincluding a substantial qualitative research component.As one <strong>of</strong> <strong>the</strong> ESSPIN reports points out, although <strong>the</strong>re have been a lot <strong>of</strong> development projects innor<strong>the</strong>rn Nigeria in recent years and much valuable experience, ‘<strong>the</strong>re has so far been little systematicsharing <strong>of</strong> lessons learned or documentation <strong>of</strong> findings or evaluation <strong>of</strong> impact’ (Poulsen 2009: 22). In asimilar vein, reflecting on <strong>the</strong> fact that several similar interventions were being carried out in nor<strong>the</strong>rnNigeria, one evaluation report notes, ‘<strong>the</strong>re is no coordination between different projects, no formal orinformal exchange <strong>of</strong> information about <strong>the</strong> approaches used and about <strong>the</strong> results <strong>of</strong> <strong>the</strong> interventions’(Gabrscek and Usman 2013: 41), resulting in ‘very little synergy dividend’ (UNICEF/UNESCO Institute <strong>of</strong>Statistics (UIS) 2012: xiv). One <strong>of</strong> <strong>the</strong> aims <strong>of</strong> this <strong>review</strong> is to start to pull toge<strong>the</strong>r some <strong>of</strong> <strong>the</strong> insightsfrom <strong>the</strong> available research and development <strong>literature</strong> on basic education in Nigeria and point to some<strong>of</strong> <strong>the</strong> gaps in our knowledge and ways in which we might increase our knowledge.6Throughout <strong>the</strong> <strong>review</strong> <strong>the</strong> term ‘research’ is used in a broad sense to also include evaluation studies, despite research andevaluation being very different in aim and function.7Collaboration was with <strong>the</strong> Centre for International Education, University <strong>of</strong> Sussex, UK.EDOREN – Education Data, Research and Evaluation in Nigeria 1
Review <strong>of</strong> <strong>the</strong> <strong>literature</strong> on basic education in Nigeria1.1.1 AudienceThe original <strong>literature</strong> <strong>review</strong> that constitutes <strong>the</strong> core <strong>of</strong> this piece <strong>of</strong> work was initially commissionedby EDOREN to inform its operational research stream and as such formed part <strong>of</strong> <strong>the</strong> project’s inceptionreport to <strong>the</strong> project funders, DFID. It was subsequently decided to expand <strong>the</strong> <strong>review</strong> and to make itaccessible both to national and international audiences, as well as to readers both familiar andunfamiliar with basic education issues in Nigeria. We have attempted to achieve this broadened aim byaccessing more <strong>of</strong> <strong>the</strong> ‘hard-to-reach’ <strong>literature</strong>, by seeking feedback from a wide range <strong>of</strong> <strong>review</strong>ers(national and international), and by making structural additions and amendments, such as adding a briefsection on <strong>the</strong> Nigerian context for readers less familiar with Nigeria. Specifically, we hope that this<strong>review</strong> can help inform <strong>the</strong> work <strong>of</strong> government <strong>of</strong>ficers involved in basic education – both policymakersand implementers at federal, state and LGEA levels – consultants working on educationaldevelopment projects, and academics working in <strong>the</strong> field <strong>of</strong> basic education.1.2 The Nigerian context 8Although estimates vary enormously, Nigeria is by far Africa’s most populous country, topping 140 millionat <strong>the</strong> time <strong>of</strong> <strong>the</strong> last census in 2006 (NPC 2010) but now reaching over 160 million according to morerecent estimations. Over 10 million live in <strong>the</strong> country’s commercial capital, Lagos; <strong>the</strong> o<strong>the</strong>r more denselypopulated areas lie in <strong>the</strong> south-eastern states, with <strong>the</strong> federal capital Abuja and Kano <strong>the</strong> most notableurban centres in central and nor<strong>the</strong>rn Nigeria respectively (NPC and ICF Macro 2009). The national primaryschool-age population is estimated at around 20 million for those aged 5–9 and 16 million for those aged10–14. For <strong>the</strong> 5–9 age group, <strong>the</strong> female-to-male ratio is 48% to 52% while for <strong>the</strong> 10–14 age group <strong>the</strong>ratio is 47% to 53%. In all, <strong>the</strong> primary school-age population (6–12) accounts for about 20% <strong>of</strong> <strong>the</strong> totalnational population figure (FME 2009a). O<strong>the</strong>r estimations suggest 42% <strong>of</strong> <strong>the</strong> population are under 15(e.g.UNICEF/UIS 2012).1.2.1 The economySince <strong>the</strong> return to democratic civilian rule in 1999, 9 Nigeria has become one <strong>of</strong> <strong>the</strong> world’s fastest growingeconomies; it boasts annual GDP per capita growth <strong>of</strong> over 8% over <strong>the</strong> last decade (Litwack et al. 2013),not least because it is Africa’s greatest exporter <strong>of</strong> crude oil and holds <strong>the</strong> continent’s largest gas reserves.Oil and gas revenues are <strong>the</strong> main earners <strong>of</strong> foreign exchange, providing 80% <strong>of</strong> government revenueand contributing 27% to GDP despite only employing 1% <strong>of</strong> <strong>the</strong> population (UNDP 2009). In contrast, over50% <strong>of</strong> <strong>the</strong> population are engaged in agriculture – primarily subsistence agriculture – which contributesa fur<strong>the</strong>r 42% to GDP (ibid.). Nigeria’s estimated 6.5 million pastoral nomads control over 90% <strong>of</strong> Nigeria’scattle (Umar 2006). The declining manufacturing and expanding service industries are o<strong>the</strong>r notablecontributors to <strong>the</strong> economy (UNDP 2009).1.2.2 Geo-political boundaries and populationsHaving gained independence from British colonial rule in 1960, <strong>the</strong> Federal Republic <strong>of</strong> Nigeria nowcomprises 36 states, plus <strong>the</strong> Federal Capital Territory (FCT) <strong>of</strong> Abuja, grouped into six geo-political zones:South East, South South, South West, North Central, North West and North East. These zones are fur<strong>the</strong>rsubdivided into 774 local government areas (LGAs). Various Nigerian academics have explained thisfederal system as a strategy to ‘manage ethnic diversity’ within Nigeria (e.g. Osaghae and Suberu 2005;Ukiwo 2005). The extent <strong>of</strong> this diversity, however, is unclear, with estimates <strong>of</strong> <strong>the</strong> number <strong>of</strong> ethnicgroups ranging from 150 to around 500 (Osaghae and Suberu 2005). According to <strong>the</strong> CIA’s WorldFactbook, <strong>the</strong> largest group is <strong>the</strong> Hausa-Fulani, estimated to comprise 29% <strong>of</strong> <strong>the</strong> population, and who8Section 1.2 is adapted from Dunne et al. (2013: 18–21).9Following 16 years <strong>of</strong> military dictatorships (1983–1998).EDOREN – Education Data, Research and Evaluation in Nigeria 2
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