Review <str<strong>on</strong>g>of</str<strong>on</strong>g> <str<strong>on</strong>g>the</str<strong>on</strong>g> <str<strong>on</strong>g>literature</str<strong>on</strong>g> <strong>on</strong> <strong>basic</strong> educati<strong>on</strong> <strong>in</strong> Nigeria9.3.3 Household choresHousehold chores c<strong>on</strong>stitute ano<str<strong>on</strong>g>the</str<strong>on</strong>g>r area <str<strong>on</strong>g>of</str<strong>on</strong>g> children’s work that can impact heavily <strong>on</strong> schoolpunctuality and attendance (Dunne et al. 2013; UNICEF 2012). The 2011 survey (NBS 2013) also showedthat household chores are an important part <str<strong>on</strong>g>of</str<strong>on</strong>g> life for all children. Although figures were negligible forchildren complet<strong>in</strong>g over 28 hours per week <str<strong>on</strong>g>of</str<strong>on</strong>g> household chores, <str<strong>on</strong>g>the</str<strong>on</strong>g>y were high for under 28 hours –at around 60% <str<strong>on</strong>g>of</str<strong>on</strong>g> <str<strong>on</strong>g>the</str<strong>on</strong>g> younger age bracket and just over 80% for <str<strong>on</strong>g>the</str<strong>on</strong>g> older age bracket – affect<strong>in</strong>g girlsmore than boys and those <strong>in</strong> urban areas slightly more than <strong>in</strong> rural areas irrespective <str<strong>on</strong>g>of</str<strong>on</strong>g> wealth.However, as we do not know whe<str<strong>on</strong>g>the</str<strong>on</strong>g>r this means children do chores for <strong>on</strong>e or 27 hours per week,aga<strong>in</strong> it is hard from <str<strong>on</strong>g>the</str<strong>on</strong>g>se statistics to gauge <str<strong>on</strong>g>the</str<strong>on</strong>g> possible impact <strong>on</strong> school<strong>in</strong>g. On <str<strong>on</strong>g>the</str<strong>on</strong>g> o<str<strong>on</strong>g>the</str<strong>on</strong>g>r hand, <str<strong>on</strong>g>the</str<strong>on</strong>g>2010 NEDS (NPC and RTI Internati<strong>on</strong>al 2011) looked at explanati<strong>on</strong>s for absenteeism from primaryschool <str<strong>on</strong>g>the</str<strong>on</strong>g> week prior to <str<strong>on</strong>g>the</str<strong>on</strong>g> <strong>in</strong>terview and found that wealth was significant; <str<strong>on</strong>g>the</str<strong>on</strong>g> poorer <str<strong>on</strong>g>the</str<strong>on</strong>g> household,<str<strong>on</strong>g>the</str<strong>on</strong>g> higher <str<strong>on</strong>g>the</str<strong>on</strong>g> percentage <str<strong>on</strong>g>of</str<strong>on</strong>g> children absent from school because <str<strong>on</strong>g>the</str<strong>on</strong>g>y had to complete domestic work.Domestic work was also reported to have caused absenteeism more <strong>in</strong> rural areas (11.8%) than <strong>in</strong> urbanareas (6.5%) and to have caused girls to be absent (12.8%) much more than boys (8.8%). The qualitativedata c<strong>on</strong>firm <str<strong>on</strong>g>the</str<strong>on</strong>g> fact that girls are generally more burdened by household chores, especially s<strong>in</strong>ce girlssometimes have to stay at home to look after newly born and younger sibl<strong>in</strong>gs while <str<strong>on</strong>g>the</str<strong>on</strong>g> mo<str<strong>on</strong>g>the</str<strong>on</strong>g>r goesout to work and are also more likely to have to look after sick relatives (Robs<strong>on</strong> 2004; British Council2012; UNICEF 2012; Bakari 2013; Dunne et al. 2013).Interest<strong>in</strong>gly, however, <str<strong>on</strong>g>the</str<strong>on</strong>g> girls surveyed <strong>in</strong> <str<strong>on</strong>g>the</str<strong>on</strong>g> TEGINT study did not specifically identify householdchores as <strong>on</strong>e <str<strong>on</strong>g>of</str<strong>on</strong>g> <str<strong>on</strong>g>the</str<strong>on</strong>g> three ma<strong>in</strong> barriers to achiev<strong>in</strong>g <str<strong>on</strong>g>the</str<strong>on</strong>g>ir desired educati<strong>on</strong>al level (Acti<strong>on</strong>Aid 2011);<str<strong>on</strong>g>the</str<strong>on</strong>g>y were poverty, early marriage and ill health (although <str<strong>on</strong>g>the</str<strong>on</strong>g> need to undertake domestic tasks mightwell have been <strong>in</strong>cluded <strong>in</strong> <str<strong>on</strong>g>the</str<strong>on</strong>g> broad band <str<strong>on</strong>g>of</str<strong>on</strong>g> poverty).9.3.4 Street and trafficked childrenStreet children, who are predom<strong>in</strong>antly boys, are a particularly important and vulnerable category <str<strong>on</strong>g>of</str<strong>on</strong>g>work<strong>in</strong>g children, which is <strong>in</strong>creas<strong>in</strong>g <strong>in</strong> number, especially <strong>in</strong> urban areas (Ikechebelu et al. 2008;Aransiola et al. 2009). They also c<strong>on</strong>stitute a large segment <str<strong>on</strong>g>of</str<strong>on</strong>g> <str<strong>on</strong>g>the</str<strong>on</strong>g> estimated 17.5 milli<strong>on</strong> OVCs <strong>in</strong>Nigeria, which also <strong>in</strong>cludes an estimated 40% <str<strong>on</strong>g>of</str<strong>on</strong>g> children under 17 who have been trafficked (BUCGHD2009). Although both girls and boys are trafficked – generally from rural to urban areas – girls are said tobe more vulnerable to traffick<strong>in</strong>g (J<strong>on</strong>es et al. 2012); gender patterns have been identified that suggestfemales are <str<strong>on</strong>g>of</str<strong>on</strong>g>ten trafficked <strong>in</strong>to domestic service, street trad<strong>in</strong>g and sexual exploitati<strong>on</strong> whereas malesare engaged <strong>in</strong> a greater range <str<strong>on</strong>g>of</str<strong>on</strong>g> activities, <strong>in</strong>clud<strong>in</strong>g street trad<strong>in</strong>g, agriculture, m<strong>in</strong><strong>in</strong>g, petty crime and<str<strong>on</strong>g>the</str<strong>on</strong>g> drug trade (Ar<strong>on</strong>owicz 2006, cited <strong>in</strong> J<strong>on</strong>es et al. 2012).Street children are usually beh<strong>in</strong>d <strong>in</strong> <str<strong>on</strong>g>the</str<strong>on</strong>g> acquisiti<strong>on</strong> <str<strong>on</strong>g>of</str<strong>on</strong>g> <strong>basic</strong> literacy skills (Lloyd and Hewett 2003; WorldBank 2006), restricted <strong>in</strong> educati<strong>on</strong>al participati<strong>on</strong>, and are particularly vulnerable to ill health and abuse(Aransiola et al. 2009). In nor<str<strong>on</strong>g>the</str<strong>on</strong>g>rn Nigeria a large proporti<strong>on</strong> <str<strong>on</strong>g>of</str<strong>on</strong>g> male street children are almajirai,whom various states are try<strong>in</strong>g to <strong>in</strong>corporate <strong>in</strong>to <str<strong>on</strong>g>the</str<strong>on</strong>g> formal school system (see also Secti<strong>on</strong> 2.5 andSecti<strong>on</strong> 8.6.2).In <str<strong>on</strong>g>the</str<strong>on</strong>g> nati<strong>on</strong>al labour survey (FOS/ILO, 2001) around 5,500 street children were surveyed, 95% <str<strong>on</strong>g>of</str<strong>on</strong>g> whomwere male. The most comm<strong>on</strong> occupati<strong>on</strong> was load carry<strong>in</strong>g (over a third), followed by hawk<strong>in</strong>g and<str<strong>on</strong>g>the</str<strong>on</strong>g>n bus c<strong>on</strong>duct<strong>in</strong>g. Over 90% <str<strong>on</strong>g>of</str<strong>on</strong>g> <str<strong>on</strong>g>the</str<strong>on</strong>g> children were out <str<strong>on</strong>g>of</str<strong>on</strong>g> school. Hawk<strong>in</strong>g predom<strong>in</strong>ated am<strong>on</strong>g <str<strong>on</strong>g>the</str<strong>on</strong>g>female resp<strong>on</strong>dents. In additi<strong>on</strong> to restrict<strong>in</strong>g educati<strong>on</strong>al participati<strong>on</strong>, street hawk<strong>in</strong>g exposes <str<strong>on</strong>g>the</str<strong>on</strong>g>children – especially girls – to sexual harassment and violence (Sada et al. 2005; UNICEF 2012). Anexploratory study <str<strong>on</strong>g>of</str<strong>on</strong>g> street hawk<strong>in</strong>g <strong>in</strong> Anambra State (<strong>in</strong> <str<strong>on</strong>g>the</str<strong>on</strong>g> South East) (Ikechebelu et al. 2008) foundthat about 70% <str<strong>on</strong>g>of</str<strong>on</strong>g> female street hawkers (mean age 13) had been sexually abused while hawk<strong>in</strong>g,<strong>in</strong>clud<strong>in</strong>g almost a quarter who had been raped or coerced <strong>in</strong>to sexual activity <strong>in</strong> exchange for gifts orfood. Aransiola et al.’s (2009) study <str<strong>on</strong>g>of</str<strong>on</strong>g> 1,500 street children across three cities also found police <str<strong>on</strong>g>of</str<strong>on</strong>g>fer<strong>in</strong>gprotecti<strong>on</strong> <strong>in</strong> exchange for sexual favours from girls or for bribes from boys.EDOREN – Educati<strong>on</strong> Data, Research and Evaluati<strong>on</strong> <strong>in</strong> Nigeria 105
Review <str<strong>on</strong>g>of</str<strong>on</strong>g> <str<strong>on</strong>g>the</str<strong>on</strong>g> <str<strong>on</strong>g>literature</str<strong>on</strong>g> <strong>on</strong> <strong>basic</strong> educati<strong>on</strong> <strong>in</strong> Nigeria9.4 Initiatives to reduce school costsThere have been various <strong>in</strong>itiatives to reduce school costs <strong>in</strong> order to <strong>in</strong>crease access to school; <str<strong>on</strong>g>the</str<strong>on</strong>g>se<strong>in</strong>itiatives have <str<strong>on</strong>g>of</str<strong>on</strong>g>ten been d<strong>on</strong>or-driven, aimed at <strong>in</strong>creas<strong>in</strong>g girls’ access to school<strong>in</strong>g <strong>in</strong> particular andhave been adjudged to have <strong>in</strong>creased enrolments, although it is not known whe<str<strong>on</strong>g>the</str<strong>on</strong>g>r beneficiaries havepersisted <strong>in</strong> school. Examples <strong>in</strong>clude c<strong>on</strong>diti<strong>on</strong>al cash transfers (UNICEF 2012). Free school uniform forPrimary 1 girls had been provided <strong>in</strong> Adamawa State for <str<strong>on</strong>g>the</str<strong>on</strong>g> last few years, and follow<strong>in</strong>g its reportedimpact <str<strong>on</strong>g>the</str<strong>on</strong>g> system is be<strong>in</strong>g extended to all pupils <strong>in</strong> all primary grades (Dunne et al. 2013). At <str<strong>on</strong>g>the</str<strong>on</strong>g> locallevel too SBMC <strong>in</strong>itiatives and/or women’s associati<strong>on</strong>s <strong>in</strong> d<strong>on</strong>or-supported nor<str<strong>on</strong>g>the</str<strong>on</strong>g>rn states havevariously raised m<strong>on</strong>ey or been given school grants that <str<strong>on</strong>g>the</str<strong>on</strong>g>y have used to provide uniforms,<strong>in</strong>structi<strong>on</strong>al materials, sanitary pads and even bicycles to girls and/or to give f<strong>in</strong>ancial support to poorfamilies (Adediran 2010; Co<strong>in</strong>co 2012; Little and Lewis 2012; P<strong>in</strong>nock 2012), <strong>in</strong>clud<strong>in</strong>g specifically tochildren <str<strong>on</strong>g>of</str<strong>on</strong>g> families <str<strong>on</strong>g>of</str<strong>on</strong>g> m<strong>in</strong>ority ethnic orig<strong>in</strong> (P<strong>in</strong>nock 2012).9.5 HealthChild ill health, which is <str<strong>on</strong>g>of</str<strong>on</strong>g>ten related to poverty, poor water and sanitati<strong>on</strong> and/or c<strong>on</strong>diti<strong>on</strong>s <str<strong>on</strong>g>of</str<strong>on</strong>g> childlabour, impacts heavily <strong>on</strong> school<strong>in</strong>g and has been identified as a major impediment to Nigeria achiev<strong>in</strong>gUBE (UNDP Nigeria 2010). As <str<strong>on</strong>g>the</str<strong>on</strong>g> 2010 NEDS succ<strong>in</strong>ctly summarised:School-age children suffer from nutriti<strong>on</strong>al problems that may affect <str<strong>on</strong>g>the</str<strong>on</strong>g>ir physical and cognitivedevelopment, as well as <str<strong>on</strong>g>the</str<strong>on</strong>g>ir capacity to attend school, stay <strong>in</strong> school, and learn while attend<strong>in</strong>g school.Previous research has found correlati<strong>on</strong>s between nutriti<strong>on</strong> and school enrolment/attendance, performance<strong>in</strong> school, age-<str<strong>on</strong>g>of</str<strong>on</strong>g>-entry, absenteeism, repetiti<strong>on</strong>, and dropout (NPC and RTI Internati<strong>on</strong>al 2011: 37–38).The survey showed many children aged 4–10 were malnourished, aga<strong>in</strong> c<strong>on</strong>siderably more <strong>in</strong> rural andnor<str<strong>on</strong>g>the</str<strong>on</strong>g>rn regi<strong>on</strong>s, and speculated that <str<strong>on</strong>g>the</str<strong>on</strong>g> disc<strong>on</strong>t<strong>in</strong>uati<strong>on</strong> <str<strong>on</strong>g>of</str<strong>on</strong>g> <str<strong>on</strong>g>the</str<strong>on</strong>g> Home Grown School Feed<strong>in</strong>gprogramme <strong>in</strong> <str<strong>on</strong>g>the</str<strong>on</strong>g> majority <str<strong>on</strong>g>of</str<strong>on</strong>g> states may have helped discourage additi<strong>on</strong>al enrolment after 2007 (ibid.:4). C<strong>on</strong>versely, <str<strong>on</strong>g>the</str<strong>on</strong>g> school-feed<strong>in</strong>g programme <strong>in</strong> Kano State (1999–2003) when all school-age childrenwere provided with a midday meal reportedly led to an expansi<strong>on</strong> <str<strong>on</strong>g>of</str<strong>on</strong>g> school enrolment (UBEC 2012a).Hunger has been identified as a major problem, sometimes result<strong>in</strong>g <strong>in</strong> pupil latecom<strong>in</strong>g andabsenteeism as <str<strong>on</strong>g>the</str<strong>on</strong>g>y go <strong>in</strong> search <str<strong>on</strong>g>of</str<strong>on</strong>g> food, and as hav<strong>in</strong>g a detrimental effect <strong>on</strong> c<strong>on</strong>centrati<strong>on</strong> andlearn<strong>in</strong>g (UNICEF 2009a; Acti<strong>on</strong>Aid 2011; UNICEF 2012; Dunne et al. 2013).Ill health was identified as <str<strong>on</strong>g>the</str<strong>on</strong>g> most important c<strong>on</strong>stra<strong>in</strong>t to school<strong>in</strong>g by just under a quarter <str<strong>on</strong>g>of</str<strong>on</strong>g> <str<strong>on</strong>g>the</str<strong>on</strong>g>7,000 sampled primary school and JSS students <strong>in</strong> <str<strong>on</strong>g>the</str<strong>on</strong>g> 2004 ESA (FME 2005). Similarly, <strong>in</strong> <str<strong>on</strong>g>the</str<strong>on</strong>g> 2010 NEDS,ill health was by far <str<strong>on</strong>g>the</str<strong>on</strong>g> most comm<strong>on</strong>ly cited reas<strong>on</strong> for miss<strong>in</strong>g school at primary level, given by over athird <str<strong>on</strong>g>of</str<strong>on</strong>g> resp<strong>on</strong>dents nati<strong>on</strong>ally and over half <strong>in</strong> <str<strong>on</strong>g>the</str<strong>on</strong>g> South West, although <strong>in</strong>terest<strong>in</strong>gly <str<strong>on</strong>g>the</str<strong>on</strong>g> percentage<strong>in</strong>creased with household wealth. In <str<strong>on</strong>g>the</str<strong>on</strong>g> TEGINT study <strong>on</strong> girls’ educati<strong>on</strong> <strong>in</strong> eight states <strong>in</strong> Nigeria,illness was also identified as a major obstacle to school<strong>in</strong>g am<strong>on</strong>g 44% <str<strong>on</strong>g>of</str<strong>on</strong>g> resp<strong>on</strong>dents, although thispercentage ranged widely across <str<strong>on</strong>g>the</str<strong>on</strong>g> states (Acti<strong>on</strong>Aid 2011). Importantly, however, <str<strong>on</strong>g>the</str<strong>on</strong>g> majority <str<strong>on</strong>g>of</str<strong>on</strong>g>adults <strong>in</strong> leadership positi<strong>on</strong>s <strong>in</strong> this study did not recognise health issues as a barrier to girls’participati<strong>on</strong> <strong>in</strong> school (ibid.). In c<strong>on</strong>trast, over half <str<strong>on</strong>g>the</str<strong>on</strong>g> teachers surveyed <strong>in</strong> <str<strong>on</strong>g>the</str<strong>on</strong>g> CFS evaluati<strong>on</strong>recognised that <strong>in</strong>adequate nutriti<strong>on</strong> prevented pupils from learn<strong>in</strong>g as much as <str<strong>on</strong>g>the</str<strong>on</strong>g>y could, althoughmost schools had had to disc<strong>on</strong>t<strong>in</strong>ue <str<strong>on</strong>g>the</str<strong>on</strong>g>ir school-feed<strong>in</strong>g programmes because <str<strong>on</strong>g>of</str<strong>on</strong>g> ris<strong>in</strong>g food costs(UNICEF 2009a).9.5.1 Water and sanitati<strong>on</strong>Poor water and sanitati<strong>on</strong> is c<strong>on</strong>sidered to be at <str<strong>on</strong>g>the</str<strong>on</strong>g> root <str<strong>on</strong>g>of</str<strong>on</strong>g> much child ill health (UNDP Nigeria 2010).The 2010 Nigeria Malaria Indicator Survey found that almost a third <str<strong>on</strong>g>of</str<strong>on</strong>g> households still have no toiletfacility and almost a fifth have <strong>on</strong>ly an open pit latr<strong>in</strong>e (NPC, Nati<strong>on</strong>al Malaria C<strong>on</strong>trol Programme(NMCP) and ICF Internati<strong>on</strong>al 2012). The three most important health c<strong>on</strong>stra<strong>in</strong>ts <strong>on</strong> pupil and teacherEDOREN – Educati<strong>on</strong> Data, Research and Evaluati<strong>on</strong> <strong>in</strong> Nigeria 106
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