Review <str<strong>on</strong>g>of</str<strong>on</strong>g> <str<strong>on</strong>g>the</str<strong>on</strong>g> <str<strong>on</strong>g>literature</str<strong>on</strong>g> <strong>on</strong> <strong>basic</strong> educati<strong>on</strong> <strong>in</strong> NigeriaTable 3.5 Pupil–teacher ratios <strong>in</strong> public primary schools <strong>in</strong> selected states, 16 2011/12JigawaKanoKadunaLagosState All teachers Qualified teachers45(30–81)*47(24–86)29(13–50)30(18–49)79(48–214)63(32–99)47(17–91)31(19–60)*Figures <strong>in</strong> brackets give <str<strong>on</strong>g>the</str<strong>on</strong>g> percentage range across <str<strong>on</strong>g>the</str<strong>on</strong>g> LGEAs with<strong>in</strong> <str<strong>on</strong>g>the</str<strong>on</strong>g> state.Source: Annual School Census 2011/12 for Jigawa, Kano, Kaduna and Lagos states.The recommended PTR at primary level is 35:1, while at sec<strong>on</strong>dary level it is 40:1 (FME 2004a). Table 3.5above shows <str<strong>on</strong>g>the</str<strong>on</strong>g> PTRs for public primary schools <strong>in</strong> selected ESSPIN-supported states. Accord<strong>in</strong>g to<str<strong>on</strong>g>the</str<strong>on</strong>g>se figures, <strong>on</strong>ly Lagos managed to achieve or better <str<strong>on</strong>g>the</str<strong>on</strong>g> recommended PTR. Importantly, however,<str<strong>on</strong>g>the</str<strong>on</strong>g> state PTR is not necessarily a reflecti<strong>on</strong> <str<strong>on</strong>g>of</str<strong>on</strong>g> <str<strong>on</strong>g>the</str<strong>on</strong>g> classroom realities. As <str<strong>on</strong>g>the</str<strong>on</strong>g> figures <strong>in</strong> brackets show,<str<strong>on</strong>g>the</str<strong>on</strong>g> mean PTR masks greater diversity at LGEA level, which is also probably true at <str<strong>on</strong>g>the</str<strong>on</strong>g> school level. Classsizes may be even larger due to flawed data, to staff deployment practices with<strong>in</strong> schools, or toclassroom or staff shortages that may result <strong>in</strong> two classes be<strong>in</strong>g put toge<str<strong>on</strong>g>the</str<strong>on</strong>g>r (see Boult<strong>on</strong> et al. 2009;Dunne et al. 2013; Gabrscek and Usman 2013). Adamawa State, for example, had a mean PTR <str<strong>on</strong>g>of</str<strong>on</strong>g> 24:1 at<str<strong>on</strong>g>the</str<strong>on</strong>g> time <str<strong>on</strong>g>of</str<strong>on</strong>g> Dunne et al.’s research, with <str<strong>on</strong>g>the</str<strong>on</strong>g> case-study LGEAs’ PTRs rang<strong>in</strong>g from 22 to 30:1. However,classroom observati<strong>on</strong>s showed classroom numbers <str<strong>on</strong>g>of</str<strong>on</strong>g> up to 70 pupils, with even greater numbers <str<strong>on</strong>g>of</str<strong>on</strong>g>pupil actually enrolled (Dunne et al. 2013). Observati<strong>on</strong> across a sample <str<strong>on</strong>g>of</str<strong>on</strong>g> schools <strong>in</strong> Kaduna, Kwara andKano <strong>in</strong>dicated PTRs <str<strong>on</strong>g>of</str<strong>on</strong>g> 100:1 and even up to 200 (Boult<strong>on</strong> et al. 2009), which are at odds with <str<strong>on</strong>g>the</str<strong>on</strong>g><str<strong>on</strong>g>of</str<strong>on</strong>g>ficial PTRs presented <strong>in</strong> Table 3.5. Similarly, observati<strong>on</strong>s for <str<strong>on</strong>g>the</str<strong>on</strong>g> GEP II evaluati<strong>on</strong> recorded someclasses rang<strong>in</strong>g from 90 to 150 pupils (UNICEF 2012). In additi<strong>on</strong>, volunteer teachers and teachers thatare privately c<strong>on</strong>tracted by communities, for example, are not <strong>in</strong>cluded <strong>in</strong> <str<strong>on</strong>g>the</str<strong>on</strong>g> figures.Box 3.1 Teachers’ difficult work<strong>in</strong>g c<strong>on</strong>diti<strong>on</strong>s‘We have to buy water to give to <str<strong>on</strong>g>the</str<strong>on</strong>g> children every day as we are not c<strong>on</strong>nected to <str<strong>on</strong>g>the</str<strong>on</strong>g> water ma<strong>in</strong>.We have no power here and so we cannot even use fans; it gets terribly hot with a hundred children<strong>in</strong> <str<strong>on</strong>g>the</str<strong>on</strong>g> classroom and <str<strong>on</strong>g>the</str<strong>on</strong>g> sun <strong>on</strong> <str<strong>on</strong>g>the</str<strong>on</strong>g> ro<str<strong>on</strong>g>of</str<strong>on</strong>g> all day. We have five toilets for <str<strong>on</strong>g>the</str<strong>on</strong>g> entire school, but <str<strong>on</strong>g>the</str<strong>on</strong>g>yd<strong>on</strong>’t work. We relieve ourselves <strong>in</strong> <str<strong>on</strong>g>the</str<strong>on</strong>g> bushes beh<strong>in</strong>d <str<strong>on</strong>g>the</str<strong>on</strong>g> ma<strong>in</strong> build<strong>in</strong>g. The children relieve<str<strong>on</strong>g>the</str<strong>on</strong>g>mselves everywhere <strong>in</strong> <str<strong>on</strong>g>the</str<strong>on</strong>g> school yard.’ (teacher)‘I am already tired when I come to school. And <str<strong>on</strong>g>the</str<strong>on</strong>g>n I have to teach a group <str<strong>on</strong>g>of</str<strong>on</strong>g> 80 or more hungry andunruly children. Sometimes, when <strong>on</strong>e <str<strong>on</strong>g>of</str<strong>on</strong>g> my colleagues does not come to school, it is double thatnumber. And I simply d<strong>on</strong>’t have <str<strong>on</strong>g>the</str<strong>on</strong>g> energy to keep <str<strong>on</strong>g>the</str<strong>on</strong>g>m under c<strong>on</strong>trol by any o<str<strong>on</strong>g>the</str<strong>on</strong>g>r means than <str<strong>on</strong>g>the</str<strong>on</strong>g>cane…’ (teacher)‘All <str<strong>on</strong>g>the</str<strong>on</strong>g> schools I have seen are hugely overcrowded. In <strong>on</strong>e record case, <strong>in</strong> a rural school, I saw a class<str<strong>on</strong>g>of</str<strong>on</strong>g> over 200 pupils <str<strong>on</strong>g>of</str<strong>on</strong>g> ages rang<strong>in</strong>g from 11 to 21 with <strong>on</strong>ly <strong>on</strong>e teacher to attend to <str<strong>on</strong>g>the</str<strong>on</strong>g>m.’ (VSOresearcher)Source: Sherry (2008: 39–40)16PTRs were taken from SMoE reports <strong>in</strong> selected ESSPIN-supported states s<strong>in</strong>ce <str<strong>on</strong>g>the</str<strong>on</strong>g> data were not available at <str<strong>on</strong>g>the</str<strong>on</strong>g> nati<strong>on</strong>allevel for primary schools.EDOREN – Educati<strong>on</strong> Data, Research and Evaluati<strong>on</strong> <strong>in</strong> Nigeria 31
Review <str<strong>on</strong>g>of</str<strong>on</strong>g> <str<strong>on</strong>g>the</str<strong>on</strong>g> <str<strong>on</strong>g>literature</str<strong>on</strong>g> <strong>on</strong> <strong>basic</strong> educati<strong>on</strong> <strong>in</strong> NigeriaTeach<strong>in</strong>g resources – <strong>in</strong> <str<strong>on</strong>g>the</str<strong>on</strong>g> form <str<strong>on</strong>g>of</str<strong>on</strong>g> a legible chalkboard and a supply <str<strong>on</strong>g>of</str<strong>on</strong>g> textbooks – are frequentlyreported to be n<strong>on</strong>-existent or <strong>in</strong>adequate (e.g. FME 2005; Adekola 2007; Holfeld et al. 2008; Ant<strong>on</strong><strong>in</strong>is2010; Davis<strong>on</strong> 2010; UBEC 2012a; UNICEF 2012; USAID 2013b and c; Gabrscek and Usman 2013). In <str<strong>on</strong>g>the</str<strong>on</strong>g>basel<strong>in</strong>e survey for COMPASS <str<strong>on</strong>g>of</str<strong>on</strong>g> almost 900 public primary and Islamiyya schools <strong>in</strong> Bauchi, Kano,Nasarawa and Lagos states plus <str<strong>on</strong>g>the</str<strong>on</strong>g> FCT, <strong>on</strong>ly 4% <str<strong>on</strong>g>of</str<strong>on</strong>g> teachers said <str<strong>on</strong>g>the</str<strong>on</strong>g>y had access to ‘<strong>basic</strong> <strong>in</strong>structi<strong>on</strong>almaterials’, a figure which had <strong>on</strong>ly <strong>in</strong>creased to 6% by <str<strong>on</strong>g>the</str<strong>on</strong>g> mid-term evaluati<strong>on</strong> (Keat<strong>in</strong>g and Mal<strong>on</strong>ey2007). Only around half <str<strong>on</strong>g>of</str<strong>on</strong>g> <str<strong>on</strong>g>the</str<strong>on</strong>g> sec<strong>on</strong>dary schools sampled <strong>in</strong> <strong>on</strong>e <str<strong>on</strong>g>of</str<strong>on</strong>g> <str<strong>on</strong>g>the</str<strong>on</strong>g> 2004 ESA surveys reportedhav<strong>in</strong>g an adequate amount <str<strong>on</strong>g>of</str<strong>on</strong>g> chalk (FME 2005).As with o<str<strong>on</strong>g>the</str<strong>on</strong>g>r levels <str<strong>on</strong>g>of</str<strong>on</strong>g> resourc<strong>in</strong>g, supplies <str<strong>on</strong>g>of</str<strong>on</strong>g> textbooks can vary am<strong>on</strong>g z<strong>on</strong>es, states, LGEAs, schoolsand with<strong>in</strong> schools, and can sometimes be due to politicised distributi<strong>on</strong> <str<strong>on</strong>g>of</str<strong>on</strong>g> resources (UBEC 2012a).Where textbooks are lack<strong>in</strong>g, <str<strong>on</strong>g>the</str<strong>on</strong>g> cost is <str<strong>on</strong>g>of</str<strong>on</strong>g>ten borne by <str<strong>on</strong>g>the</str<strong>on</strong>g> family (FME 2005; L<strong>in</strong>cove 2009; NPC andRTI Internati<strong>on</strong>al 2011) and failure to provide textbooks can lead to pupil exclusi<strong>on</strong> and corporalpunishment. Lack <str<strong>on</strong>g>of</str<strong>on</strong>g> teach<strong>in</strong>g materials was found to be <str<strong>on</strong>g>the</str<strong>on</strong>g> sec<strong>on</strong>d most demotivat<strong>in</strong>g factor <strong>in</strong> <str<strong>on</strong>g>the</str<strong>on</strong>g>nati<strong>on</strong>al teacher motivati<strong>on</strong> survey, after issues related to pay and c<strong>on</strong>diti<strong>on</strong>s (Sherry 2008; see alsoDunne et al. 2013, and Secti<strong>on</strong> 10.4). In <str<strong>on</strong>g>the</str<strong>on</strong>g> most recent USAID-funded EGRA and EGMA <strong>in</strong> Bauchi andSokoto states, reported access to learn<strong>in</strong>g materials (i.e. read<strong>in</strong>g books <strong>in</strong> Hausa and English and aMa<str<strong>on</strong>g>the</str<strong>on</strong>g>matics exercise book) correlated positively with pupil performance (USAID 2013a). Similarly, <str<strong>on</strong>g>the</str<strong>on</strong>g>2001 UBE nati<strong>on</strong>al primary assessments <strong>in</strong> English and Maths found that pupils that said <str<strong>on</strong>g>the</str<strong>on</strong>g>y hadtextbooks performed significantly better <strong>in</strong> <str<strong>on</strong>g>the</str<strong>on</strong>g> subject than those that did not (UBEC 2001).On <str<strong>on</strong>g>the</str<strong>on</strong>g> o<str<strong>on</strong>g>the</str<strong>on</strong>g>r hand, school visits have <str<strong>on</strong>g>of</str<strong>on</strong>g>ten uncovered piles <str<strong>on</strong>g>of</str<strong>on</strong>g> unused books <strong>in</strong> <str<strong>on</strong>g>the</str<strong>on</strong>g> head teacher’s <str<strong>on</strong>g>of</str<strong>on</strong>g>ficeor <strong>in</strong> <str<strong>on</strong>g>the</str<strong>on</strong>g> corner <str<strong>on</strong>g>of</str<strong>on</strong>g> <str<strong>on</strong>g>the</str<strong>on</strong>g> classroom or library (Adekola 2007; Ahmed et al. 2008; Chege et al. 2008; Sherry2008; Dunne et al. 2013); accord<strong>in</strong>g to some, this is because books are c<strong>on</strong>sidered to be too precious forpupils to use (Sherry 2008; Dunne et al. 2013).There have also been isolated reports <str<strong>on</strong>g>of</str<strong>on</strong>g> some teachers or government <str<strong>on</strong>g>of</str<strong>on</strong>g>ficers sell<strong>in</strong>g governmenttextbooks (Chege et al. 2008; Dunne et al. 2013) and <str<strong>on</strong>g>of</str<strong>on</strong>g> books rema<strong>in</strong><strong>in</strong>g unclaimed at SUBEB or LGEAlevel, <strong>in</strong> some cases because <str<strong>on</strong>g>of</str<strong>on</strong>g> a shortage <str<strong>on</strong>g>of</str<strong>on</strong>g> m<strong>on</strong>ey for fuel to distribute <str<strong>on</strong>g>the</str<strong>on</strong>g>m to schools. In AdamawaState, <str<strong>on</strong>g>the</str<strong>on</strong>g> SUBEB reported address<strong>in</strong>g this ‘leakage’ <str<strong>on</strong>g>of</str<strong>on</strong>g> textbooks and blockage <strong>in</strong> <str<strong>on</strong>g>the</str<strong>on</strong>g> supply cha<strong>in</strong> bothby customis<strong>in</strong>g books with a ‘not for sale’ watermark and <strong>in</strong>itiat<strong>in</strong>g direct distributi<strong>on</strong> to schools (ra<str<strong>on</strong>g>the</str<strong>on</strong>g>rthan via <str<strong>on</strong>g>the</str<strong>on</strong>g> LGEA), backed up by follow-up visits to schools by state m<strong>on</strong>itor<strong>in</strong>g teams to ensure that<str<strong>on</strong>g>the</str<strong>on</strong>g> books had arrived (Dunne et al. 2013).3.5 Issues aris<strong>in</strong>g and gaps <strong>in</strong> <str<strong>on</strong>g>the</str<strong>on</strong>g> evidenceThere is a substantial body <str<strong>on</strong>g>of</str<strong>on</strong>g> evidence <strong>on</strong> <str<strong>on</strong>g>the</str<strong>on</strong>g> widespread poor c<strong>on</strong>diti<strong>on</strong> <str<strong>on</strong>g>of</str<strong>on</strong>g> many schools, but <str<strong>on</strong>g>the</str<strong>on</strong>g>differences <strong>in</strong> <strong>in</strong>frastructural c<strong>on</strong>diti<strong>on</strong>s between LGEAs raises serious questi<strong>on</strong>s about <str<strong>on</strong>g>the</str<strong>on</strong>g> processes <str<strong>on</strong>g>of</str<strong>on</strong>g>resource allocati<strong>on</strong> for school renovati<strong>on</strong> and <str<strong>on</strong>g>the</str<strong>on</strong>g> processes by which c<strong>on</strong>structi<strong>on</strong> c<strong>on</strong>tracts areawarded.A major c<strong>on</strong>cern is <str<strong>on</strong>g>the</str<strong>on</strong>g> evidence suggest<strong>in</strong>g that improvements <strong>in</strong> <strong>in</strong>frastructure and resource supply arefail<strong>in</strong>g to keep pace with <strong>in</strong>creased demand, thus hav<strong>in</strong>g a negative impact <strong>on</strong> educati<strong>on</strong>al quality and<str<strong>on</strong>g>the</str<strong>on</strong>g>reby threaten<strong>in</strong>g retenti<strong>on</strong> and underm<strong>in</strong><strong>in</strong>g any ga<strong>in</strong>s <strong>in</strong> <strong>in</strong>creased enrolment.The provisi<strong>on</strong> <str<strong>on</strong>g>of</str<strong>on</strong>g> water and gender-segregated sanitati<strong>on</strong> is clearly vital to keep<strong>in</strong>g pupils (and staff) <strong>in</strong>schools, and reports suggest recent improvements <strong>in</strong> provisi<strong>on</strong> <strong>in</strong> project-supported states, but <str<strong>on</strong>g>the</str<strong>on</strong>g>reare clearly issues around <str<strong>on</strong>g>the</str<strong>on</strong>g> ma<strong>in</strong>tenance and cleanl<strong>in</strong>ess <str<strong>on</strong>g>of</str<strong>on</strong>g> both. These need to be <strong>in</strong>vestigated morethoroughly, <strong>in</strong>clud<strong>in</strong>g <str<strong>on</strong>g>the</str<strong>on</strong>g> impact <str<strong>on</strong>g>of</str<strong>on</strong>g> shared community use, fee charges for water, safety for girls aroundtoilet areas, and hygiene and equity issues surround<strong>in</strong>g <str<strong>on</strong>g>the</str<strong>on</strong>g> clean<strong>in</strong>g <str<strong>on</strong>g>of</str<strong>on</strong>g> toilets. The reas<strong>on</strong>s why childrenare not us<strong>in</strong>g toilets also need to be explored.EDOREN – Educati<strong>on</strong> Data, Research and Evaluati<strong>on</strong> <strong>in</strong> Nigeria 32
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