Review <str<strong>on</strong>g>of</str<strong>on</strong>g> <str<strong>on</strong>g>the</str<strong>on</strong>g> <str<strong>on</strong>g>literature</str<strong>on</strong>g> <strong>on</strong> <strong>basic</strong> educati<strong>on</strong> <strong>in</strong> Nigeriaattendance as reported <strong>in</strong> <str<strong>on</strong>g>the</str<strong>on</strong>g> 2004 ESA (FME 2005) – malaria, typhoid and diarrhoea – are all related towater and sanitati<strong>on</strong> issues.9.5.2 Intest<strong>in</strong>al parasitesOne <str<strong>on</strong>g>of</str<strong>on</strong>g> <str<strong>on</strong>g>the</str<strong>on</strong>g> results <str<strong>on</strong>g>of</str<strong>on</strong>g> this poor water and sanitati<strong>on</strong> is high prevalence rates am<strong>on</strong>g children <str<strong>on</strong>g>of</str<strong>on</strong>g> <strong>in</strong>test<strong>in</strong>alparasites (Igagb<strong>on</strong>e and Olagunju 2006; Olaniyi et al. 2007; Opara et al. 2012). Children liv<strong>in</strong>g <strong>in</strong> rural orurban slum areas are particularly affected (Olaniyi et al. 2007). Studies across several states reportedtwo-thirds or more <str<strong>on</strong>g>of</str<strong>on</strong>g> children be<strong>in</strong>g <strong>in</strong>fected (and <str<strong>on</strong>g>of</str<strong>on</strong>g>ten re-<strong>in</strong>fected) with various <strong>in</strong>test<strong>in</strong>al parasites(Igagb<strong>on</strong>e and Olagunju 2006; Opara et al. 2012). These high prevalence rates have showed little sign <str<strong>on</strong>g>of</str<strong>on</strong>g>improvement over <str<strong>on</strong>g>the</str<strong>on</strong>g> last 50 years, yet <str<strong>on</strong>g>the</str<strong>on</strong>g> persistence <str<strong>on</strong>g>of</str<strong>on</strong>g> parasites arrests children’s physical andcognitive development as well as leav<strong>in</strong>g <str<strong>on</strong>g>the</str<strong>on</strong>g>m pr<strong>on</strong>e to disease and malnutriti<strong>on</strong> (Igagb<strong>on</strong>e andOlagunju 2006; Opara et al. 2012).9.5.3 MalariaMalaria is endemic <strong>in</strong> Nigeria but <str<strong>on</strong>g>the</str<strong>on</strong>g>re are limited data available <strong>on</strong> its impact <strong>on</strong> children’s andteachers’ school attendance. In <str<strong>on</strong>g>the</str<strong>on</strong>g> 2004 ESA, however, malaria was overwhelm<strong>in</strong>gly identified as <str<strong>on</strong>g>the</str<strong>on</strong>g>ma<strong>in</strong> health reas<strong>on</strong> for miss<strong>in</strong>g school (by over 80% <str<strong>on</strong>g>of</str<strong>on</strong>g> pupils and just under 50% <str<strong>on</strong>g>of</str<strong>on</strong>g> staff) (FME 2005).In additi<strong>on</strong>, <str<strong>on</strong>g>the</str<strong>on</strong>g> recent nati<strong>on</strong>al survey <strong>on</strong> malaria found that a quarter <str<strong>on</strong>g>of</str<strong>on</strong>g> all household members hadhad a fever <strong>in</strong> <str<strong>on</strong>g>the</str<strong>on</strong>g> two weeks prior to <str<strong>on</strong>g>the</str<strong>on</strong>g> survey, with <str<strong>on</strong>g>the</str<strong>on</strong>g> highest figures <strong>in</strong> <str<strong>on</strong>g>the</str<strong>on</strong>g> North West, where overa third had reportedly been ill. For children aged 5 to 9 <str<strong>on</strong>g>the</str<strong>on</strong>g> figure was 26.6%, while 10 to 14-year oldswere slightly less affected (19.3%) (NPC, NMCP and ICF Internati<strong>on</strong>al 2012).9.5.4 HIV and AIDSAno<str<strong>on</strong>g>the</str<strong>on</strong>g>r major health challenge is HIV and AIDS; although overall nati<strong>on</strong>al HIV prevalence is estimatedto have stabilised at around 3.3% (Samuels et al. 2012), an estimated 2.8 milli<strong>on</strong> children under 17 areliv<strong>in</strong>g with HIV, many <str<strong>on</strong>g>of</str<strong>on</strong>g> whom are not attend<strong>in</strong>g school (BUCGHD 2009). Additi<strong>on</strong>ally, latest figuresfrom <str<strong>on</strong>g>the</str<strong>on</strong>g> NEDS reported that around 7% <str<strong>on</strong>g>of</str<strong>on</strong>g> adults knew <str<strong>on</strong>g>of</str<strong>on</strong>g> children <strong>in</strong> <str<strong>on</strong>g>the</str<strong>on</strong>g> community <str<strong>on</strong>g>the</str<strong>on</strong>g>y believed wereabsent from school because a parent or guardian was ill with ei<str<strong>on</strong>g>the</str<strong>on</strong>g>r HIV or AIDS, a figure which washighest for <str<strong>on</strong>g>the</str<strong>on</strong>g> North Central and South East z<strong>on</strong>es, both at over 12%. Moreover, rural communitieswere affected more than urban <strong>on</strong>es (NPC and RTI Internati<strong>on</strong>al 2011). A recent study <strong>on</strong> HIVvulnerabilities <strong>in</strong> four states (Adamawa, Benue, Edo and Lagos) highlighted work<strong>in</strong>g-age and youngchildren and youth, especially OVCs and young women, as be<strong>in</strong>g especially vulnerable to HIV <strong>in</strong>fecti<strong>on</strong>(Samuels et al. 2012). Young women (aged 14 to 24) were three times more likely to be HIV positivethan young men. Inevitably, poverty was also a factor. Households <strong>in</strong> difficult ec<strong>on</strong>omic circumstanceswith high numbers <str<strong>on</strong>g>of</str<strong>on</strong>g> dependents are more at risk <str<strong>on</strong>g>of</str<strong>on</strong>g> poverty, food <strong>in</strong>security and malnutriti<strong>on</strong> and<str<strong>on</strong>g>the</str<strong>on</strong>g>refore at fur<str<strong>on</strong>g>the</str<strong>on</strong>g>r risk <str<strong>on</strong>g>of</str<strong>on</strong>g> <strong>in</strong>fecti<strong>on</strong> by engag<strong>in</strong>g <strong>in</strong> risky practices such as transacti<strong>on</strong>al sex <strong>in</strong> exchangefor food (ibid.). The study also highlighted <str<strong>on</strong>g>the</str<strong>on</strong>g> limited awareness <str<strong>on</strong>g>of</str<strong>on</strong>g> HIV preventi<strong>on</strong>, accord<strong>in</strong>g to 2008NDHS data, especially <strong>in</strong> <str<strong>on</strong>g>the</str<strong>on</strong>g> three nor<str<strong>on</strong>g>the</str<strong>on</strong>g>rn z<strong>on</strong>es and am<strong>on</strong>g poor, rural women (Samuels et al. 2012).9.5.5 Family members’ ill healthAdult ill health can also have an impact <strong>on</strong> children; <strong>in</strong> <str<strong>on</strong>g>the</str<strong>on</strong>g> 2004 ESA pupil survey car<strong>in</strong>g for sick parentswas identified as a major c<strong>on</strong>stra<strong>in</strong>t <strong>on</strong> school attendance by over 10% <str<strong>on</strong>g>of</str<strong>on</strong>g> pupil resp<strong>on</strong>dents (FME 2005).Some children not <strong>on</strong>ly have to look after sick parents but may also sometimes have to go out to earnm<strong>on</strong>ey, to make up for <str<strong>on</strong>g>the</str<strong>on</strong>g> lack <str<strong>on</strong>g>of</str<strong>on</strong>g> household <strong>in</strong>come (Samuels et al. 2012). In so do<strong>in</strong>g, <str<strong>on</strong>g>the</str<strong>on</strong>g>y are at risk<str<strong>on</strong>g>of</str<strong>on</strong>g> fur<str<strong>on</strong>g>the</str<strong>on</strong>g>r impoverishment (with its associated health risks) because <str<strong>on</strong>g>the</str<strong>on</strong>g>ir <strong>in</strong>come-earn<strong>in</strong>g potential isless than that <str<strong>on</strong>g>of</str<strong>on</strong>g> an adult (ibid.).EDOREN – Educati<strong>on</strong> Data, Research and Evaluati<strong>on</strong> <strong>in</strong> Nigeria 107
Review <str<strong>on</strong>g>of</str<strong>on</strong>g> <str<strong>on</strong>g>the</str<strong>on</strong>g> <str<strong>on</strong>g>literature</str<strong>on</strong>g> <strong>on</strong> <strong>basic</strong> educati<strong>on</strong> <strong>in</strong> NigeriaChild labourers that work <strong>in</strong> hazardous c<strong>on</strong>diti<strong>on</strong>s are also likely to be particularly affected by healthissues (UNICEF 2006).Jo<strong>in</strong>t <strong>in</strong>itiatives between <str<strong>on</strong>g>the</str<strong>on</strong>g> m<strong>in</strong>istries <str<strong>on</strong>g>of</str<strong>on</strong>g> health and educati<strong>on</strong> have been suggested to enhance pupils’wellbe<strong>in</strong>g <strong>in</strong> school (Dunne et al. 2013). However, <strong>in</strong> <str<strong>on</strong>g>the</str<strong>on</strong>g> f<strong>in</strong>al assessment <str<strong>on</strong>g>of</str<strong>on</strong>g> COMPASS, it was c<strong>on</strong>cludedthat such <strong>in</strong>itiatives were difficult to establish because <str<strong>on</strong>g>of</str<strong>on</strong>g> <str<strong>on</strong>g>the</str<strong>on</strong>g> separate vertical flows <strong>in</strong> fund<strong>in</strong>g andmanagement that exist <strong>in</strong> educati<strong>on</strong> and health, both <strong>in</strong> government and with<strong>in</strong> d<strong>on</strong>or agencies (Holfeldet al. 2008).9.6 Cultural issuesThere are many gendered cultural reas<strong>on</strong>s related to religi<strong>on</strong> and/or lifestyle that affect girls’ and boys’participati<strong>on</strong> <strong>in</strong> school<strong>in</strong>g. As regards religious issues, <str<strong>on</strong>g>the</str<strong>on</strong>g>y are str<strong>on</strong>gly gendered, impact<strong>in</strong>g differently<strong>on</strong> girls and boys.Many <str<strong>on</strong>g>of</str<strong>on</strong>g> <str<strong>on</strong>g>the</str<strong>on</strong>g> issues that h<strong>in</strong>der girls’ and boys’ participati<strong>on</strong> <strong>in</strong> school<strong>in</strong>g that were discussed <strong>in</strong> Chapter8 are ascribed to religious culture, and to <strong>in</strong>terpretati<strong>on</strong>s <str<strong>on</strong>g>of</str<strong>on</strong>g> Islam <strong>in</strong> particular. The way <strong>in</strong> which<strong>in</strong>terpretati<strong>on</strong>s <str<strong>on</strong>g>of</str<strong>on</strong>g> Christianity, or even ATR, may affect school participati<strong>on</strong> has not attracted <str<strong>on</strong>g>the</str<strong>on</strong>g> samelevel <str<strong>on</strong>g>of</str<strong>on</strong>g> attenti<strong>on</strong> <strong>on</strong> <str<strong>on</strong>g>the</str<strong>on</strong>g> part <str<strong>on</strong>g>of</str<strong>on</strong>g> researchers (Nyemutu-Roberts et al. 2009), which <strong>in</strong> part may bebecause most research has accompanied development <strong>in</strong>itiatives <strong>in</strong> <str<strong>on</strong>g>the</str<strong>on</strong>g> predom<strong>in</strong>antly Muslim areas <str<strong>on</strong>g>of</str<strong>on</strong>g>nor<str<strong>on</strong>g>the</str<strong>on</strong>g>rn Nigeria and because Muslim girls have been <strong>on</strong>e <str<strong>on</strong>g>of</str<strong>on</strong>g> <str<strong>on</strong>g>the</str<strong>on</strong>g> ma<strong>in</strong> targets <str<strong>on</strong>g>of</str<strong>on</strong>g> educati<strong>on</strong>al<strong>in</strong>terventi<strong>on</strong>s.As was highlighted <strong>in</strong> Chapter 8, Muslim girls – especially those from poor, traditi<strong>on</strong>al families – aregenerally c<strong>on</strong>sidered to be particularly disadvantaged <strong>in</strong> terms <str<strong>on</strong>g>of</str<strong>on</strong>g> opportunities for educati<strong>on</strong>alparticipati<strong>on</strong> because <str<strong>on</strong>g>of</str<strong>on</strong>g> traditi<strong>on</strong>s <str<strong>on</strong>g>of</str<strong>on</strong>g> early marriage and hawk<strong>in</strong>g, which <strong>in</strong> turn is <str<strong>on</strong>g>of</str<strong>on</strong>g>ten driven by <str<strong>on</strong>g>the</str<strong>on</strong>g>need to save for kayan daki (trousseau or dowry) and <str<strong>on</strong>g>the</str<strong>on</strong>g> fact that mo<str<strong>on</strong>g>the</str<strong>on</strong>g>rs <str<strong>on</strong>g>of</str<strong>on</strong>g>ten live <strong>in</strong> purdah, orseclusi<strong>on</strong>, and are <str<strong>on</strong>g>the</str<strong>on</strong>g>refore not allowed out <str<strong>on</strong>g>of</str<strong>on</strong>g> <str<strong>on</strong>g>the</str<strong>on</strong>g>ir homes to earn m<strong>on</strong>ey (Sada et al. 2005; Okojie2012; UNICEF 2012). Parental c<strong>on</strong>cerns about public school<strong>in</strong>g be<strong>in</strong>g ‘western’ and anti-Islam are als<str<strong>on</strong>g>of</str<strong>on</strong>g>ound <strong>in</strong> some communities (UNICEF 2012; Dunne et al. 2013).For Muslim boys <str<strong>on</strong>g>the</str<strong>on</strong>g> most obvious cultural-religious c<strong>on</strong>stra<strong>in</strong>t to participati<strong>on</strong> <strong>in</strong> school<strong>in</strong>g is <str<strong>on</strong>g>the</str<strong>on</strong>g>almajirai system, described <strong>in</strong> Secti<strong>on</strong> 8.6.2.A number <str<strong>on</strong>g>of</str<strong>on</strong>g> Muslim children attend Qur’anic school before (or after) attend<strong>in</strong>g government school.Dunne et al.’s (2013) study <strong>in</strong> Adamawa State reported that numerous children (girls and boys) arrivedlate to public school <strong>in</strong> <str<strong>on</strong>g>the</str<strong>on</strong>g> morn<strong>in</strong>g after be<strong>in</strong>g released late from Qur’anic school, which was due t<str<strong>on</strong>g>of</str<strong>on</strong>g><strong>in</strong>ish at 8am. This frequently resulted <strong>in</strong> <str<strong>on</strong>g>the</str<strong>on</strong>g>ir be<strong>in</strong>g beaten or, <strong>in</strong> order to avoid be<strong>in</strong>g beaten, <str<strong>on</strong>g>the</str<strong>on</strong>g>ywould miss school altoge<str<strong>on</strong>g>the</str<strong>on</strong>g>r or sneak <strong>in</strong> after <str<strong>on</strong>g>the</str<strong>on</strong>g> gate was no l<strong>on</strong>ger be<strong>in</strong>g patrolled. There was littleevidence <str<strong>on</strong>g>of</str<strong>on</strong>g> schools and religious leaders work<strong>in</strong>g toge<str<strong>on</strong>g>the</str<strong>on</strong>g>r to arrange a timetable that couldaccommodate both types <str<strong>on</strong>g>of</str<strong>on</strong>g> school<strong>in</strong>g (ibid.).The lifestyles <str<strong>on</strong>g>of</str<strong>on</strong>g> Nigeria’s many nomads can also impact negatively <strong>on</strong> participati<strong>on</strong> <strong>in</strong> formal educati<strong>on</strong>,compounded by ill-fitt<strong>in</strong>g aspects <str<strong>on</strong>g>of</str<strong>on</strong>g> school and curriculum organisati<strong>on</strong> and discrim<strong>in</strong>ati<strong>on</strong> at school –as described below <strong>in</strong> Secti<strong>on</strong> 9.7.9.7 Nomads and formal educati<strong>on</strong>Most <str<strong>on</strong>g>of</str<strong>on</strong>g> this secti<strong>on</strong> derives from research <strong>on</strong> nomadic pastoralists <strong>in</strong> nor<str<strong>on</strong>g>the</str<strong>on</strong>g>rn Nigeria. Despite <str<strong>on</strong>g>the</str<strong>on</strong>g><strong>in</strong>creas<strong>in</strong>g numbers <str<strong>on</strong>g>of</str<strong>on</strong>g> nomadic pastoralists attend<strong>in</strong>g school, as reported <strong>in</strong> Secti<strong>on</strong> 7.8, participati<strong>on</strong>rates are still relatively low and dropout rates are reportedly still high (Usman 2006). The variousreas<strong>on</strong>s for this are reported <strong>on</strong> below.EDOREN – Educati<strong>on</strong> Data, Research and Evaluati<strong>on</strong> <strong>in</strong> Nigeria 108
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