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Review <strong>of</strong> <strong>the</strong> <strong>literature</strong> on basic education in Nigeriawere also tracking truancy (Chege et al. 2008); similarly, several SBMCs have been monitoring <strong>the</strong>attendance <strong>of</strong> pupils and/or teachers (Coinco 2012).Hawking opportunities in schoolBauchi State is giving girl-hawkers who go to school <strong>the</strong> opportunity to sell goods in school during breakand after lessons (Chege et al. 2008; Gabrscek and Usman 2013).Girls’ clubsA TEGINT initiative, members reported enjoying <strong>the</strong> clubs as places to gain new knowledge (aboutgender rights, including responses to violence, and HIV and AIDS), have fun, access some material helpand improve <strong>the</strong>ir reading and writing skills. Girls in clubs in rural schools demonstrated higher levels <strong>of</strong>empowerment than girls not in clubs in rural schools (<strong>the</strong>re was no relationship in urban schools) interms <strong>of</strong> better knowledge on HIV and gender equality and greater levels <strong>of</strong> confidence to speak outagainst gender inequality and report violence. However, as <strong>the</strong> report acknowledges, knowledge andattitudes do not necessarily equate to altered behaviour (ActionAid 2012).Improved infrastructureBetter facilities, especially improved water and sanitation, <strong>of</strong>ten provided through small grants fromLGEAs and/or donor agencies, toge<strong>the</strong>r with SBMC/PTA funds, have encouraged enrolment (Chege et al.2008; Okojie 2008; UNICEF 2012). Greater accessibility to water sources shared with communities hasmeant that girls do not have to walk so far to fetch water in <strong>the</strong> morning (ibid.).Sports facilitiesIn a survey <strong>of</strong> girls who had benefitted from <strong>the</strong> ESSPIN’s pilot girls’ education initiative in three LGEAs inJigawa State, which included providing sporting facilities, 96% <strong>of</strong> <strong>the</strong> beneficiaries thought that sportingfacilities were important in encouraging more girls to enter and remain in school. More girls reportedlywant to participate in athletics, football, volleyball and table tennis as a result <strong>of</strong> <strong>the</strong> intervention(ESSPIN 2013b).NFE and ‘second-chance’ schoolsImproved facilities (including knitting and sewing machines and rice and maize threshing machines aswell as materials for English and Maths) have helped increase uptake by young married women whocompleted primary school but had to abandon <strong>the</strong>ir schooling ei<strong>the</strong>r for marriage or because <strong>of</strong>pregnancy (Okojie 2012; UNICEF 2012). As well as <strong>the</strong> economic benefit to <strong>the</strong> women <strong>the</strong>mselves, <strong>the</strong>yneed opportunities for economic empowerment so as to be able to afford to educate <strong>the</strong>ir daughters(Okojie 2012). However, <strong>the</strong> improved infrastructure and resources are still struggling to keep up withincreased demand (ibid.).Some women are reportedly able to attend <strong>the</strong> evening classes by leaving <strong>the</strong>ir young child with anolder sibling (Okojie 2008). However, since <strong>the</strong> sibling doing childcare is likely to be a girl, in fur<strong>the</strong>ringher own education <strong>the</strong> mo<strong>the</strong>r may well be increasing <strong>the</strong> domestic burden on her daughter.Micro-credit to womenMicro-credit support to women is enabling some women to run small businesses, be less financiallydependent, and pay for <strong>the</strong>ir daughters' education (Chege et al. 2008).EDOREN – Education Data, Research and Evaluation in Nigeria 91
Review <strong>of</strong> <strong>the</strong> <strong>literature</strong> on basic education in NigeriaIncrease in girls-only schoolsThere has been an increase in girls-only schools (Okojie 2008; FMWASD 2010). Ten percent <strong>of</strong> <strong>the</strong>beneficiary girls surveyed in <strong>the</strong> three LGEAs participating in ESSPIN’s girls’ education initiative in JigawaState thought that girls-only boarding secondary schools would help improve <strong>the</strong> retention <strong>of</strong> girls inschool (ESSPIN 2013b). Provision <strong>of</strong> all-girls schools is one <strong>of</strong> <strong>the</strong> three funding priority areas <strong>of</strong> <strong>the</strong>‘imbalance funds’ from <strong>the</strong> FGN–UBE Intervention Fund (see Section 6.2).Increase in provision <strong>of</strong> integrated Qur’anic and Islamiyya schoolsGEP I claimed that <strong>the</strong> number <strong>of</strong> Qur’anic schools using <strong>the</strong> integrated curriculum rose by 75% in GEPsupportedcommunities, by 50% in GEP-supported LGAs, and by 30% in GEP-supported states by <strong>the</strong> end<strong>of</strong> <strong>the</strong> project (Chege et al. 2008). This, <strong>the</strong>y also claimed, has resulted in an increase in femaleenrolments since IQTE schools are preferred for girls by many parents/guardians (FMWASD 2010) onaccount <strong>of</strong> being considered safer (Okojie 2008). However, it is not specified why <strong>the</strong>y are thought to besafer; nor was any evidence presented as to whe<strong>the</strong>r <strong>the</strong>y actually are safer.Gender-disaggregated data ga<strong>the</strong>ringThere has been training to improve EMIS data ga<strong>the</strong>ring <strong>of</strong> gender-disaggregated statistics to helpassess progress toward gender equality (Chege et al. 2008). As <strong>the</strong> British Council (2012: 5) reporthighlighted: ‘Accurate, accessible disaggregated data must be a priority for any government committedto promoting gender equity’. Conversely, ‘contradictory and confusing’ statistics on education (BritishCouncil 2012: 4) hamper efforts to achieve gender equality (UNDP Nigeria 2010; British Council 2012).Female teachers and female participation in educationIt is widely believed that having more qualified female teachers encourages greater female enrolment,retention and attainment in school (USAID 2009; ActionAid 2011; Okojie 2012; Gabrscek and Usman2013). Part <strong>of</strong> this belief is based on <strong>the</strong> notion <strong>of</strong> female teachers being ‘role models’ (USAID 2009;ActionAid 2011; Okojie 2012), presumably in terms <strong>of</strong> girls’ educational aspirations, although generallythis is not specified. In response to <strong>the</strong> shortage <strong>of</strong> female teachers, especially in rural areas <strong>of</strong> nor<strong>the</strong>rnNigeria, <strong>the</strong> FTTSS was initiated, which is ‘aimed at increasing <strong>the</strong> number <strong>of</strong> female teachers to serve asrole models in rural communities where female enrolment in basic education is low’ (Okojie 2012:47).Yet <strong>the</strong> relationship between female participation in school and female teachers is not straightforward.The British Council <strong>review</strong> <strong>of</strong> national data concluded that <strong>the</strong> near doubling <strong>of</strong> female teachers atsecondary level has not been matched by a comparable increase in female enrolment at that level,suggesting perhaps that o<strong>the</strong>r factors are <strong>of</strong> greater importance (British Council 2012). Similarly, aftercomparing <strong>the</strong> attainment <strong>of</strong> girls with schools’ gender pr<strong>of</strong>iles, <strong>the</strong> TEGINT baseline noted: ‘<strong>the</strong>presence <strong>of</strong> female teachers does not appear significant in supporting girls’ progression and attainment’(ActionAid 2011: 17), concluding that female teachers needed better ‘training and support to improvefemale teachers’ capacity to be role models for girls’ (ibid.: 19). Qualitative data from Bakari’s (2013)study in a handful <strong>of</strong> secondary schools in Kogi State and Dunne et al.’s (2013) primary-level case studiesin Adamawa appear to back up this point. Although <strong>the</strong>re is evidence to suggest that girls are more likelyto go to female teachers with health concerns, for example in Bakari (2013), <strong>the</strong>re is also evidence thatfemale teachers may hold gender-stereotyped expectations about girls’ (and boys’) behaviour andcapabilities – in <strong>the</strong> same way that male teachers and indeed pupils (female or male) can do – that serveto perpetuate gender inequalities (see Bakari 2013).Box 8.2 The Female Teacher Training Scholarship SchemeThe FTTSS is viewed as one <strong>of</strong> GEP’s highlights (UNICEF 2012) and is aimed at increasing <strong>the</strong> number<strong>of</strong> female teachers, seen to be a major deterrent to girls’ enrolment in school. So far over 2,300EDOREN – Education Data, Research and Evaluation in Nigeria 92
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