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Review <strong>of</strong> <strong>the</strong> <strong>literature</strong> on basic education in NigeriaBox 9.2 Being over-ageI want to be a medical doctor when I finish school. The only problem is that I will be old. I am notashamed, because I am looking for knowledge. I did not start school early because I attended villageschool where <strong>the</strong>y don’t teach, until <strong>the</strong> school collapsed. We stayed without going to school for nineyears before being enrolled here. I came third in <strong>the</strong> class last term. Now I want to be first or second.My fa<strong>the</strong>r tells me to read at home. He checks my books very well for <strong>the</strong> nine years I was doing pettytrading with my fa<strong>the</strong>r.Source: Extract from an interview with a 20-year-old man in Primary 6 (Dunne et al. 2013: 230)9.3.2 Opportunity costsOne estimate claims that 50 million children aged between 5 and 17 in Nigeria are believed to beworking, which is about 20% <strong>of</strong> <strong>the</strong> estimated total for all SSA (Diallo et al. 2010). In practice, <strong>the</strong> actualscale <strong>of</strong> <strong>the</strong> issue is hard to determine given <strong>the</strong> widely differing interpretations <strong>of</strong> <strong>the</strong> terms ‘child work’and ‘child labour’ that surveys use to estimate numbers. Importantly, <strong>the</strong> two main surveys referred tobelow used differing definitions <strong>of</strong> child labour, and for <strong>the</strong> most part adults responded on behalf <strong>of</strong>children or children responded in <strong>the</strong> presence <strong>of</strong> adults, which is likely to have resulted in anunderreporting <strong>of</strong> activities that could be viewed as child labour.The only national child labour survey to have been conducted so far in Nigeria was back in 2001(FOS/ILO, 2001), for which <strong>the</strong> definitions <strong>of</strong> child labour and work did not actually specify numbers <strong>of</strong>hours. The survey found that 15 million 5–17-year-olds, who made up almost 40% <strong>of</strong> <strong>the</strong> country’spopulation at <strong>the</strong> time, were found to be working (7.2 million girls and 7.8 million boys); over 6 million<strong>of</strong> <strong>the</strong>m were not in school, with almost 1 million having dropped out <strong>of</strong> school. Two million <strong>of</strong> <strong>the</strong>seworking children, half <strong>of</strong> whom were in school, were working very long hours. Unsurprisingly, workaffected attendance in school; over a third <strong>of</strong> <strong>the</strong> children admitted to missing <strong>the</strong> entire week prior to<strong>the</strong> survey, although over 80% <strong>of</strong> <strong>the</strong> children did not think that work affected <strong>the</strong>ir performance. Given<strong>the</strong> high reported level <strong>of</strong> absenteeism, this ei<strong>the</strong>r suggests that <strong>the</strong> children were not aware <strong>of</strong> <strong>the</strong>detrimental effect <strong>of</strong> absenteeism on <strong>the</strong>ir learning, as <strong>the</strong> report itself speculated, or perhaps that <strong>the</strong>quality <strong>of</strong> schooling was so poor that it made little difference whe<strong>the</strong>r <strong>the</strong>y attended or not.The FOS/ILO (2001) survey fur<strong>the</strong>r reported that just under 40% <strong>of</strong> children were involved in economicactivity as well as housekeeping or domestic work, about a tenth were involved only in economic activityand just over a quarter were engaged in non-economic activities (although it should be noted that <strong>the</strong>rewere considerable regional variations). A study on <strong>the</strong> status <strong>of</strong> school-age children in <strong>the</strong> South Eastand South South zones plus Benue State also identified engagement <strong>of</strong> children as house helps as one <strong>of</strong><strong>the</strong> major access issues in basic education in those areas (Okeke et al. 2008).The more recent MICS national survey on <strong>the</strong> welfare <strong>of</strong> children and women (NBS 2013) also included asection on child labour, albeit using differing definitions <strong>of</strong> what it constituted. Among children aged fiveto 14, around 47% were found to be engaged in child labour, although with great variation among states(Lagos had 31% while Bauchi and Zamfara had figures closer to 60%). However, with a definition for 5–11-year-olds that only necessitated at least one hour <strong>of</strong> paid economic activity per week (or 28 hoursplus <strong>of</strong> household chores) it is hard to gauge <strong>the</strong> percentage <strong>of</strong> pupils whose schooling would beadversely affected. More useful perhaps is to consider <strong>the</strong> percentages for 12–14-year-olds, for whom<strong>the</strong> definition is 14 hours or more <strong>of</strong> economic activity or 28 hours <strong>of</strong> household chores, and whosehours are more likely to have an impact on schooling. The average is 16.5%, with <strong>the</strong> highest figures for<strong>the</strong> North West, where just over a fifth are engaged in child labour as opposed to under a tenth in <strong>the</strong>South West. Aggregated figures for 5–14-year-olds indicate that this affects children in rural areas morethan urban areas and girls slightly more than boys; unsurprisingly, <strong>the</strong> poorer <strong>the</strong> household <strong>the</strong> greater<strong>the</strong> percentage <strong>of</strong> children involved in child labour. In terms <strong>of</strong> paid or unpaid employment mostEDOREN – Education Data, Research and Evaluation in Nigeria 103
Review <strong>of</strong> <strong>the</strong> <strong>literature</strong> on basic education in Nigeriachildren are involved in <strong>the</strong> family business, which for most will be agriculture. This affects around half<strong>of</strong> all children aged 5–11 and three-quarters <strong>of</strong> those aged 12–14, irrespective <strong>of</strong> gender, geo-politicalzone, location or wealth. Girls and boys are also involved in hawking and petty trading, thus missingschool on market days in particular, with some also travelling great distances (see also FME 2005;Boulton et al. 2009; Usman 2010). For girls in nor<strong>the</strong>rn Nigeria, hawking is a major and widespreadimpediment to <strong>the</strong>ir participation in school (ActionAid 2011; Okojie 2012; UNICEF 2012).The national child labour survey study (i.e. FOS/ILO 2001) revealed that <strong>the</strong> majority (61.1% nationallyand 69.8% in <strong>the</strong> North East and North West) <strong>of</strong> school children who combined schooling with workingused <strong>the</strong>ir income to sponsor <strong>the</strong>mselves in school or to assist <strong>the</strong>ir parents in <strong>of</strong>fsetting part or all <strong>of</strong><strong>the</strong>ir school expenses. In addition, just over 40% <strong>of</strong> those working but not in school saved <strong>the</strong>ir earningsto pay for schooling later (FOS/ILO 2001). A smaller survey <strong>of</strong> working children in Ibadan, in Oyo State in<strong>the</strong> South West, also found that almost half <strong>of</strong> those in school were earning money to continue <strong>the</strong>irstudies, although only a similar percentage wanted to go to school full time if <strong>the</strong>y had <strong>the</strong> choice(Omokhodion et al. 2006).Dunne et al.’s (2013) study in Adamawa State noted that pupil absenteeism from school due to work is<strong>of</strong>ten seasonal in agricultural communities, as both girls and boys are needed for planting andharvesting. Boys, however, also tend to be needed more to work in <strong>the</strong> fields or to mind cattle bothbefore and during school hours, resulting in latecoming or absenteeism. In Edo State, seasonal absencesfor farming and fishing were also identified as a major barrier to sustained school access (UBEC 2012a).On <strong>the</strong> o<strong>the</strong>r hand, it is important to note that in many communities <strong>the</strong> practice <strong>of</strong> children working isalso considered an important part <strong>of</strong> <strong>the</strong> socialisation process and thus not a ‘bad thing’ per se (FOS/ILO2001; Robson 2004; Oloko 1993, cited in Omokhodion et al. 2006; Usman 2010). Two ethnographicstudies in nor<strong>the</strong>rn Nigeria have noted that, for female children, hawking is also considered to be alegitimate way <strong>of</strong> meeting potential suitors, as well as allowing girls to save for <strong>the</strong>ir wedding (Robson2004; Usman 2010) (see also Section 8.3).Box 9.3 Young female Fulbe street hawkers confront dangerOften we stop at <strong>the</strong> entrance or gates <strong>of</strong> homes in major streets to solicit customers by announcingloud our products. Sometimes <strong>the</strong>re are no labels or warning signs <strong>of</strong> danger as ‘beware <strong>of</strong> dogs’ andwe become victims <strong>of</strong> dog bites. See what a dog did to me a year ago [showing me a dog bite scar onher left leg].When <strong>the</strong> men continue making such comments without addressing <strong>the</strong> price and quantity <strong>of</strong> nono[sour milk] and fura [cooked dumplings] purchase, we consider that a bad signal that <strong>the</strong>y are not‘true’ customers, but have a different motive. We <strong>the</strong>n insist by asking <strong>the</strong>m how much worth <strong>of</strong> ourproduct <strong>the</strong>y want, but <strong>the</strong>y ignore us and insist on <strong>the</strong>ir compliments which <strong>of</strong>ten may lead <strong>the</strong>mtouching us in inappropriate places. At this point we lift out calabashes and leave immediately beforewe are harmed.Yes, [she laughs!!!] we sometimes also use insulting city language to confront our verbal intimidators[all <strong>the</strong> girls are laughing in support <strong>of</strong> <strong>the</strong> statement]. Often we use <strong>the</strong> finger sign signifying‘bastard’. They sometimes push us too far <strong>the</strong>n we also react to stop <strong>the</strong> insult using city method andit works as <strong>the</strong> male intimidators or abuser feels challenges and ashamed and leave us alone bywalking. Even though we know we are not supposed to do so, but we sometimes need to defendourselves as <strong>the</strong> city people do, but what do <strong>the</strong>y expect us to do hav[ing] pushed us too far despiteour patience?Source: Interview extracts with young rural Fulbe girls hawking in <strong>the</strong> city, from Usman (2010: 725–727)EDOREN – Education Data, Research and Evaluation in Nigeria 104
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