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Review <strong>of</strong> <strong>the</strong> <strong>literature</strong> on basic education in Nigeriaschool. O<strong>the</strong>r determinants that had a negative association with school attendance for both girls andboys included travelling far to primary or secondary school, and living in <strong>the</strong> North East or North West.Importantly, controlling for school costs, girls were more likely to attend if <strong>the</strong>y had school-age siblingsbut less likely if <strong>the</strong>re were infants in <strong>the</strong> family to care for (ibid.).Aluede and Ikechukwu (2003) found that <strong>the</strong> key factors in Edo State were out-<strong>of</strong>-school factors such asfinancial barriers, home duties, social attitudes, and personal characteristics <strong>of</strong> <strong>the</strong> adolescents, ra<strong>the</strong>rthan in-school factors such as school quality.2.8 Issues arising and gaps in evidenceIn summary, at <strong>the</strong> national level little overall progress seems to be being made in terms <strong>of</strong> schoolenrolment and attendance, with some exceptions, although in <strong>the</strong> case <strong>of</strong> enrolments <strong>the</strong> apparenttrend may be simply be due to missing and/or faulty statistics from previous and/or current data.There is a wide range <strong>of</strong> factors that may act as barriers to access (both ‘out-<strong>of</strong>-school’ and ‘in-school’factors) and <strong>the</strong>re is no clear understanding <strong>of</strong> which <strong>of</strong> <strong>the</strong>se barriers are most important and how <strong>the</strong>barriers interrelate.While explanations are <strong>of</strong>fered in broad terms for <strong>the</strong> variation between nor<strong>the</strong>rn and sou<strong>the</strong>rn regions,urban and rural locations, and girls and boys, research is lacking on <strong>the</strong> specific factors that can explainsome <strong>of</strong> <strong>the</strong> extreme variations in enrolment/attendance in specific states, especially within <strong>the</strong> samegeo-political zone.In general, <strong>the</strong> quantitative data – especially those found in <strong>the</strong> EMIS – are unreliable, with data missingfrom states or internally inconsistent, low levels <strong>of</strong> returns from private schools, and particularly sparsedata around unregistered private schools and Islamic schools.The lack <strong>of</strong> age-specific school census data makes it impossible to calculate NERs.There is sparse available data on over-age pupils (linked to <strong>the</strong> lack <strong>of</strong> age-specific school census data)and repetition rates, both <strong>of</strong> which are important in terms <strong>of</strong> understanding patterns <strong>of</strong> dropout, whichis ano<strong>the</strong>r area that merits fur<strong>the</strong>r research.A major under-researched area is that <strong>of</strong> pupil transfers in and out <strong>of</strong> schools, which has implications foraccess, assessment and children’s experience <strong>of</strong> schooling. Reliable school-level data will again beessential for such research to be undertaken.Quality <strong>of</strong>evidence:MediumSize <strong>of</strong> body <strong>of</strong>evidence:MediumEvidence Strength AssessmentConsistency <strong>of</strong>results:Fairly ConsistentClosely matched totopic:HighOverallassessment:MediumEDOREN – Education Data, Research and Evaluation in Nigeria 23
Review <strong>of</strong> <strong>the</strong> <strong>literature</strong> on basic education in NigeriaCHAPTER 3: EDUCATIONAL QUALITY – THE SCHOOL CONTEXT3.1 IntroductionThis chapter is essentially concerned with <strong>the</strong> context <strong>of</strong> school quality, specifically with schoolavailability, school infrastructure and material resources, which toge<strong>the</strong>r provide <strong>the</strong> learningenvironment for <strong>the</strong> curricular issues and learning processes considered in Chapter 4. We draw on <strong>the</strong>2010 NEDS, <strong>the</strong> 2004 ESA, and on a range <strong>of</strong> quantitative and qualitative studies.In <strong>the</strong> 2010 NEDS ‘poor school quality’ 13 was a factor for 16.8% <strong>of</strong> children never attending school, afigure that was much <strong>the</strong> same for urban and rural populations but exceeded 20% for <strong>the</strong> poorestwealth quintile and was highest in <strong>the</strong> North East (28.6%). It was also a factor in primary school pupildropout – although <strong>the</strong> numbers <strong>of</strong> dropouts were generally low – particularly in <strong>the</strong> North East andNorth West (NPC and RTI International 2011). Conversely, good-quality new infrastructure has beenshown to improve pupil enrolment at primary level (Takahashi 2010; Dunne et al. 2013).The 2010 NEDS also suggested that in-school factors are important determinants <strong>of</strong> pupil absenteeism.After illness, <strong>the</strong> second most cited reason given for absenteeism was that <strong>the</strong> child ‘did not want to goto school’, which applied nationally to around a fifth <strong>of</strong> all pupils (21.7%), with over twice as manychildren not wanting to go to public schools (24%) as private schools (11%); fur<strong>the</strong>rmore, this was morepronounced in rural areas than in urban areas. Not wanting to go to school might <strong>the</strong>refore suggestconcerns with school quality, which may relate to poor infrastructure and resources, as discussed in thischapter, or may have more to do with curriculum relevance and/or <strong>the</strong> processes <strong>of</strong> teaching andlearning (see Chapter 4), or teacher–pupil and pupil–pupil relations (see sections 4.6 and 4.7).3.2 School supply3.2.1 School availabilitySchool supply has an impact on both pupil access, because distance to school is a major factor inchildren’s non-enrolment, and on school quality, since insufficient schools to satisfy demand forschooling can lead to overcrowded classrooms (NPC and RTI International 2011). Table 3.1 shows recenttrends at <strong>the</strong> zonal level in <strong>the</strong> supply <strong>of</strong> public primary schools. Patterns for <strong>the</strong> four-year period aremixed, with <strong>the</strong> number <strong>of</strong> schools rising in 2007/08 before dropping again in 2009/10 in <strong>the</strong> NorthWest, South South and South East, rising steadily in <strong>the</strong> North East and North Central, and droppingsteadily in <strong>the</strong> South West. Drops in <strong>the</strong> number <strong>of</strong> schools, however, are perhaps not surprising if <strong>the</strong>falling numbers <strong>of</strong> public primary enrolments in some regions over <strong>the</strong> same period are actually correct(see Section 2.3). However, <strong>the</strong>re is variation among states. In <strong>the</strong> South West, for example, whichshows an overall decline in public primary schools, Osun and Ogun states never<strong>the</strong>less both postincreases in <strong>the</strong> number <strong>of</strong> public primary schools.More importantly, perhaps, <strong>the</strong> statistics need to be treated with extreme caution. Some <strong>of</strong> <strong>the</strong> stateleveldata show <strong>the</strong> number <strong>of</strong> schools rising in 2007/08 and <strong>the</strong>n dropping in 2009/10 (e.g. from 1,325to 2,885, <strong>the</strong>n 1,967 in Sokoto, or from 1,029 to 1,367 to 1,038 in Anambra), which seems unlikely. Evenmore unlikely, <strong>the</strong> digest indicates that Ondo State lost 809 primary schools between 2007/08 and2011/12. What is more, <strong>the</strong> ASC figures in FME (2011b) for Kaduna and Kwara for 2009 to 2010 (4,341and 1,658, respectively), to take just two examples, are not <strong>the</strong> same as <strong>the</strong> figures quoted in <strong>the</strong>irrespective state ASC, at 3,956 and 1,448 respectively (Kaduna SMoE 2010; Kwara SMoE 2010).13School quality was assessed in reference to one or more <strong>of</strong> <strong>the</strong> following: teachers not performing well, lack <strong>of</strong> pupil safety,poor quality buildings and facilities, and classroom overcrowding.EDOREN – Education Data, Research and Evaluation in Nigeria 24
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