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Review <strong>of</strong> <strong>the</strong> <strong>literature</strong> on basic education in NigeriaOne obstacle to addressing this issue is <strong>the</strong> apparent level <strong>of</strong> acceptance <strong>of</strong> violence against women inNigerian society more generally, even by women <strong>the</strong>mselves. For example, in one national surveyaround 46% <strong>of</strong> women agreed that it was acceptable for <strong>the</strong>ir male partner/spouse to beat <strong>the</strong>m for oneor more reasons such as burning <strong>the</strong> food, refusing to have sex, or going out without telling <strong>the</strong>irpartner/spouse (NBS 2011). Figures were higher for rural and less educated women.In <strong>the</strong> TEGINT study, sexual harassment and violence was widely reported by girls in some states (FCTand Niger), although not in o<strong>the</strong>rs (Katsina, Bauchi and Kaduna). This was thought to be due tounderreporting (ActionAid 2011); nomadic Fulbe girls and women, for example, are explicitly told not totalk about such matters to strangers (Usman 2010).The TEGINT study also reported frequent denial by head teachers or o<strong>the</strong>r <strong>of</strong>ficials that violence wastaking place, as well as a lack <strong>of</strong> effective action taken in <strong>the</strong> event <strong>of</strong> it being reported (ActionAid 2011).Following project interventions, <strong>the</strong> endline survey concluded that schools and communities showedgreater willingness to discuss violence, and girls had greater confidence in reporting and challengingviolence, but that <strong>the</strong>re were still ‘troubling silences and a lack <strong>of</strong> understanding <strong>of</strong> gender inequalitiesand violence’ (ActionAid 2012: 22).A similar denial <strong>of</strong> sexual violence by teachers and o<strong>the</strong>r adults interviewed was a feature <strong>of</strong> <strong>the</strong> FME’snational assessment on violence in basic education (FME 2007b); although around 11% female learnersadmitted <strong>the</strong>y knew <strong>of</strong> cases <strong>of</strong> rape in school, not one female teacher acknowledged its existence andonly 2% <strong>of</strong> male teachers did. Adolescent girls at JSS level were more at risk <strong>of</strong> sexual predation than atprimary level, or at least were more willing to report it. Unsurprisingly, violence – particularly sexualviolence – was <strong>of</strong>ten not reported (ibid.).In <strong>the</strong> 2004 ESA survey <strong>of</strong> head teachers, around 13% admitted that female students had been sexuallyharassed in <strong>the</strong>ir schools, with male teachers identified as <strong>the</strong> main culprits in 39% <strong>of</strong> <strong>the</strong> cases (FME2005). However, <strong>the</strong>se are likely to be underestimates given that findings from <strong>the</strong> same survey suggesthigher numbers <strong>of</strong> girls dropping out due to pregnancy (FME 2005).School-age female hawkers, as reported above, are particularly at risk <strong>of</strong> sexual violence and <strong>the</strong>reforevulnerable to pregnancy and HIV infection (Sada et al. 2005; Ikechebelu et al. 2008; Aransiola et al.2009; Audu et al. 2009; see also Section 9.3).8.5 Initiatives to improve female participation in educationOver several years now <strong>the</strong>re has been a donor-driven acceleration in <strong>the</strong> push to increase femaleparticipation in basic education, in nor<strong>the</strong>rn Nigeria in particular. State and LGEA social mobilisationunits have been active in many nor<strong>the</strong>rn states, <strong>of</strong>ten working with traditional and religious leaders andSBMCs to help change community attitudes regarding female education and to encourage traditionalMuslim families in particular to send girls to school, especially at primary level.There are widespread reports <strong>of</strong> changing attitudes in many communities and <strong>of</strong> increased enrolments<strong>of</strong> girls at primary and JSS level (Chege et al. 2008; Okojie 2008; Adediran 2010; Little and Lewis 2012;Pinnock 2012; Dunne et al. 2013; Gabrscek and Usman 2013), although reliable statistical data to backup <strong>the</strong> claims are harder to come by, as most authors acknowledge. Some studies have presentedstatistical data; TEGINT, for example, claimed an overall 15% improvement in gender parity for primaryand junior enrolment and completion in <strong>the</strong>ir project schools, and an increase <strong>of</strong> 6% in primary schoolexam passes, enabling girls to transition to JSS (ActionAid 2012). Yet primary enrolment data for Bauchiand Katsina (where TEGINT also took place) in <strong>the</strong> GEP II evaluation show that, while girls’ enrolments inBauchi increased as a percentage <strong>of</strong> total enrolments from 41% in 2007/08 to 44% in 2010/11, totalenrolment for both girls and boys had decreased (UNICEF 2012). Moreover, <strong>the</strong>re was considerableEDOREN – Education Data, Research and Evaluation in Nigeria 89
Review <strong>of</strong> <strong>the</strong> <strong>literature</strong> on basic education in Nigeriavariation across <strong>the</strong> LGEAs and it was suggested that <strong>the</strong>re was likely to be a similar variation acrossschools within LGEAs (ibid.).While various strategies have reportedly helped to increase girls’ enrolment – such as community dramaand use <strong>of</strong> billboards (Chege et al. 2008) – <strong>the</strong> active support <strong>of</strong> traditional and religious rulers has beenhighlighted above all as critical to success in changing attitudes toward girls’ education and makingthings happen (Chege et al. 2008; Okojie 2008; Adediran 2010; UNICEF 2012). SBMCs too have played animportant role in community mobilisation, including raising funds for school improvement and girlfocusedmaterial support (Adediran 2010; Little and Lewis 2012; Pinnock 2012; UNICEF, 2012; see alsoChapter 13).8.5.1 Strategies to assist girls’ participationStrategies that seem to have helped girls’ participation in schooling are discussed below:Increased female and youth representation on SBMCsIncreased female representation has been uneven, with some reports <strong>of</strong> SBMCs with up to 50% womenand o<strong>the</strong>rs with fewer than <strong>the</strong> stipulated number (Chege et al. 2008; Okojie 2008; Adediran 2010; Littleand Lewis 2012; Pinnock 2012; UNICEF 2012; see also Section 13.4). Some studies claim women to beincreasingly vocal and active in supporting girls’ education (e.g. Coinco 2012), while o<strong>the</strong>rs suggest thatgenerally women’s voices are still rarely heard (e.g. Little and Lewis 2012).Box 8.1 Women’s participation on SBMCs‘The women in <strong>the</strong> SBMC are really working. They are doing wonders. They have visited most <strong>of</strong> <strong>the</strong>households in Abor, including <strong>the</strong> Igwe’s palace and <strong>the</strong> Churches. They visit homes, discussing withparents whose wards have challenges in school how to go about addressing identified problems. Theymake visits to school to monitor <strong>the</strong> activities <strong>of</strong> both <strong>the</strong> pupils and <strong>the</strong> teachers. In December lastyear, <strong>the</strong>y were instrumental to <strong>the</strong> counterpart funds raised for <strong>the</strong> purchase <strong>of</strong> <strong>the</strong> water tank <strong>the</strong>yhave in <strong>the</strong> school. The women here have been using <strong>the</strong> ‘heart <strong>of</strong> a mo<strong>the</strong>r’ to cater for <strong>the</strong> school.There was a case <strong>of</strong> a family who brought two girls as house helps and refused <strong>the</strong>m go to school.When <strong>the</strong> women in <strong>the</strong> SBMC got wind <strong>of</strong> this happening, <strong>the</strong>y immediately approached <strong>the</strong> family,and now <strong>the</strong> children are in school.’(Female CSO Programme Manager, Rural Community, Kwara).Source: Coinco (2012: 39)Abolition <strong>of</strong> school feesSchool fees for girls have been abolished in Jigawa State (Jigawa SMoE 2010).Material assistanceNumerous initiatives by government and/or through money raised by <strong>the</strong> SBMC or PTA committeeshave provided scholarships, conditional cash transfers, provision <strong>of</strong> uniforms, sandals or textbooks forgirls (Chege et al. 2008; Adediran 2010; Jigawa SMoE 2010; Kano SMoE 2010; Dunne et al. 2013; ESSPIN2013b).Household mappingIn order to identify families with children <strong>of</strong> school-going age and persuade parents/guardians to send<strong>the</strong>ir children to school, some communities are attempting household mapping. In Bauchi State <strong>the</strong>yEDOREN – Education Data, Research and Evaluation in Nigeria 90
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