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Review <strong>of</strong> <strong>the</strong> <strong>literature</strong> on basic education in NigeriaWhat strategies could be used to address <strong>the</strong>se inequalities?The financing and governance <strong>of</strong> educationBefore finally looking at some <strong>of</strong> <strong>the</strong> key questions that future research could usefully explore in relationto access, quality, equity and impact in basic education, it is important to emphasise <strong>the</strong> overarchingtwin issues <strong>of</strong> <strong>the</strong> financing and governance <strong>of</strong> education. Throughout <strong>the</strong> <strong>review</strong>, funding shortages,blockages and inequalities have featured as major obstacles to <strong>the</strong> improvement <strong>of</strong> educational qualityin Nigeria. Related to this has been <strong>the</strong> o<strong>the</strong>r recurring issue <strong>of</strong> a lack <strong>of</strong> clarity concerning federal, stateand local government responsibility (including financial) and <strong>the</strong>refore accountability for various aspects<strong>of</strong> educational governance – a situation made more complex by <strong>the</strong> existence <strong>of</strong> numerous parastatalsat federal and state levels.We need to have a deeper understanding <strong>of</strong> public expenditure in basic education and <strong>the</strong> relationshipsbetween systems for planning and budgeting and <strong>the</strong> way in which <strong>the</strong>y variously relate to learningoutcomes.The existence <strong>of</strong> political appointments in education and <strong>the</strong> influence <strong>of</strong> politics more generallythroughout <strong>the</strong> educational system, which is apparent in <strong>the</strong> <strong>literature</strong>, mean that any research onschooling needs to take account <strong>of</strong> <strong>the</strong> political economy. This includes <strong>the</strong> political economy <strong>of</strong> <strong>the</strong>communities within which schools are embedded. Thus, <strong>the</strong> netmapping exercise undertaken in <strong>the</strong>Kano study (Schiffer et al. 2013), which analysed <strong>the</strong> formal and informal networks and hierarchiesrelated to non-salary funding at state, local government and community levels, would be a fruitfulstarting point for research in any state.Questions that need to be answered by researchIn all <strong>the</strong> suggested research issues below, studies should seek out examples where possible <strong>of</strong> whereschooling is working well, where <strong>the</strong>re are ‘good practices’, to see what can be learned and appliedelsewhere, although at <strong>the</strong> same time avoiding bland decontextualised ‘what works’ scenarios. Studiesshould be carried out in a range <strong>of</strong> contexts – geographical and cultural and in different school types –and attention should be paid to gender and o<strong>the</strong>r issues <strong>of</strong> cultural identity (e.g. age, ethnicity, religion,home language, etc.).Research methodologies and methods need to be varied and suitable for <strong>the</strong> research purpose.What follows covers most <strong>of</strong> <strong>the</strong> main issues that have come out <strong>of</strong> <strong>the</strong> <strong>review</strong>, although <strong>the</strong> list is by nomeans exhaustive, and readers should also look back at <strong>the</strong> individual chapters’ ‘issues arising and gapsin <strong>the</strong> evidence’ sections so as to identify o<strong>the</strong>r research areas.Gaps in research: access to basic educationWhile survey data give a broad idea <strong>of</strong> some <strong>of</strong> <strong>the</strong> out-<strong>of</strong>-school factors that affect access (e.g. povertyand <strong>the</strong> need for child labour/work, distance to school, etc.) and in-school factors that push childrenaway from school (e.g. school quality, etc.), <strong>the</strong>y present an oversimplified picture. Decision-makingabout schooling is rarely a one-<strong>of</strong>f occurrence but is instead a constant process <strong>of</strong> re-evaluation ascircumstances change, especially for vulnerable households.In addition, <strong>the</strong>re is also much vagueness, about <strong>the</strong> in-school factors that play a role in particular:Which aspects <strong>of</strong> school quality are important? What is meant by ‘did not like school’ and ‘had enoughschooling’, which applied to a large proportion <strong>of</strong> respondents? What sorts <strong>of</strong> issues are covered by thatEDOREN – Education Data, Research and Evaluation in Nigeria 157
Review <strong>of</strong> <strong>the</strong> <strong>literature</strong> on basic education in Nigeriacatch-all phrase ‘o<strong>the</strong>rs’, which also applied to a large proportion <strong>of</strong> respondents? How do <strong>the</strong>se variousfactors interrelate in order to have an impact on access?Thus, more in-depth nuanced research is needed, covering a range <strong>of</strong> contexts, and asking why children,particularly from marginalised groups (nomads, over-age, migrants, almajirai, OVCs, children withdisabilities, etc.) are still not in school, and what conditions would be necessary for that to change.Research is needed on why pupils drop out <strong>of</strong> school. What are <strong>the</strong> push and pull factors and processesthat lead to dropping out? Poor attendance is usually a precursor to dropout, so what are <strong>the</strong>attendance patterns <strong>of</strong> children who drop out and <strong>the</strong> reasons for irregular attendance? What could bedone to help <strong>the</strong>m attend more regularly and keep <strong>the</strong>m in school? Mapping attendance patternsamong a cross-section <strong>of</strong> pupils in different communities over time to find out how <strong>the</strong>ir out-<strong>of</strong>-schooland in-school lives interrelate and affect attendance and learning would be beneficial.The inflexibility <strong>of</strong> school timetabling (in terms <strong>of</strong> <strong>the</strong> school year, week or day) has been shown to havea major impact on pupil punctuality and attendance in areas where it conflicts with o<strong>the</strong>r householdand/or community priorities. Research needs to explore <strong>the</strong> ways in which different schools try toaccommodate (or not) conflicting household/community needs and/or priorities. What are <strong>the</strong> barriersto greater flexibility? How could <strong>the</strong>y be overcome?Social mobilisation would appear to be increasing enrolments in many areas but <strong>the</strong>re is evidence thatsome schools are struggling to cope with <strong>the</strong> increased intake and that <strong>the</strong> resulting drop in schoolquality results in some pupils later dropping out. How widespread is this phenomenon and what areschools doing to ensure that enrolment translates into sustained access with regular attendance andcompletion? What are <strong>the</strong> barriers to this? To what extent and in what ways is gender being taken intoaccount?Research also needs to identify whe<strong>the</strong>r particular school types (IQTE, private secular, public, boarding,single-sex, etc.) are having greater success in improving sustained access and completion <strong>of</strong> pupils atboth primary and JSS level. If so, what are <strong>the</strong> structures and practices that promote pupils’ successfulcompletion <strong>of</strong> school?Although automatic promotion is now <strong>the</strong> norm, some pupils still repeat years. What sorts <strong>of</strong> pupilsrepeat? What are <strong>the</strong> reasons for repetition? What effect does this have on <strong>the</strong>ir likelihood <strong>of</strong> staying inschool? What can be done to reduce repetition?We know little about what sorts <strong>of</strong> pupils make or do not make <strong>the</strong> transition to JSS and why. Again,what are <strong>the</strong> conditions that support transition? What are <strong>the</strong> barriers? What could be done to improvematters, particularly for vulnerable groups? How are people from NFE streams being reintegrated int<strong>of</strong>ormal education at JSS level? What are <strong>the</strong> factors that help or hinder this transition?The 2004 ESA survey suggested that pupil transfer between schools was a common phenomenon. Whatsorts <strong>of</strong> pupils transfer and why? How does this affect <strong>the</strong>ir learning? How does this relate to householddecisions about school choice?To what extent are IQTE and nomadic schools managing to widen access? What strategies are provingsuccessful? What more could be done? To what extent and in what ways are IQTE and nomadic schoolsmanaging to translate that into regular attendance and completion? What are <strong>the</strong> gendered aspects <strong>of</strong><strong>the</strong>se processes?Studies are lacking on <strong>the</strong> effects <strong>of</strong> conflict on access to education and <strong>the</strong> ways in which <strong>the</strong> quality orforms <strong>of</strong> education may also have an impact on conflict.EDOREN – Education Data, Research and Evaluation in Nigeria 158
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