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Review <strong>of</strong> <strong>the</strong> <strong>literature</strong> on basic education in NigeriaThat said, maintenance is clearly an issue (Coppinger 2009; Takahashi 2010). Water sources aresometimes damaged, especially when shared by communities, with delays before <strong>the</strong>y are repaired;equally, wells or water tanks can be dry (Coppinger 2009; UNICEF 2012). The external evaluation <strong>of</strong>JICA’s primary school construction project (Takahashi 2010; see also Box 6.1) emphasised <strong>the</strong>importance <strong>of</strong> maintenance training and understanding <strong>of</strong> shared responsibilities. Thus, in Kaduna,where <strong>the</strong> head teachers who had been trained were still in post and where <strong>the</strong>re was an understandingthat schools and <strong>the</strong> PTA would do small-scale repairs and SUBEB would take over <strong>the</strong> rest, <strong>the</strong> schoolfacilities were still in good order when visited. On <strong>the</strong> o<strong>the</strong>r hand, in Plateau and Niger states, where<strong>the</strong>re had been changes in personnel and lack <strong>of</strong> clarity as to maintenance roles and responsibilities,some schools were already beginning to show signs <strong>of</strong> wear.Importantly, <strong>the</strong> baseline for <strong>the</strong> USAID-funded COMPASS project in Bauchi, Kano, Lagos, Nasarawa and<strong>the</strong> FCT found that, even where schools had safe water, pupils did not necessarily have free access(Keating 2005).Moreover, provision <strong>of</strong> toilet facilities is in itself insufficient to address <strong>the</strong> issue <strong>of</strong> inadequatesanitation provision. For example, only 32% <strong>of</strong> pupils in <strong>the</strong> GEP II evaluation said <strong>the</strong>y actually used <strong>the</strong>school toilets (UNICEF 2012). This could be due to a number <strong>of</strong> reasons, including safety, cleanliness andcultural sanitation practices. As <strong>the</strong> UNICEF and o<strong>the</strong>r studies have noted, toilets may have doorshanging <strong>of</strong>f, <strong>the</strong>refore not giving privacy, or can be filthy and vandalised, <strong>the</strong>refore unhealthy and not inuse, or dark and poorly ventilated (Boulton et al. 2009; UNICEF 2009a; UNICEF 2012; Dunne et al. 2013).This is <strong>of</strong>ten <strong>the</strong> case where schools lack <strong>the</strong> appropriate security and/or a secure compound fence toprotect <strong>the</strong> facilities from outsiders (Boulton et al. 2009; Coinco 2012; Dunne et al. 2013). The strongodour in extreme heat has also been identified as a factor preventing use (Evans et al. 2009), whilestudies <strong>of</strong> gender violence elsewhere in Africa (e.g. Leach et al. 2003 in Ghana, Malawi and Zimbabwe)have highlighted how toilets are <strong>of</strong>ten danger spots where girls are particularly prone to harassment and<strong>the</strong>refore avoid <strong>the</strong>m.Cultural issues may also contribute to lack <strong>of</strong> toilet use. A study <strong>of</strong> communities in Jigawa and Benue hasechoed findings in o<strong>the</strong>r studies in West Africa in showing that without addressing <strong>the</strong> various cultures<strong>of</strong> sanitation practices and involving community members in <strong>the</strong> process <strong>of</strong> design, location andalignment <strong>of</strong> toilets/latrines, people may not use <strong>the</strong> facilities (Dittmer 2009; Evans et al. 2009).3.3.1 ElectricityAccess to electricity is a problem countrywide, particularly in nor<strong>the</strong>rn regions, rural areas and among<strong>the</strong> urban poor, as Table 3.4 indicates (UNDP 2009). The national educational survey mentioned abovefound 65% <strong>of</strong> schools to be without electricity (Ikoya and Onoyase 2008), although even whereelectricity is <strong>the</strong>oretically available <strong>the</strong> supply is <strong>of</strong>ten erratic. A World Bank report noted that <strong>the</strong>re arepower outages 320 days a year, according to enterprise surveys, which is worse than anywhere else inAfrica (Foster and Pushak 2011).In schools without electricity and with dark classrooms, it has been found to be too dark to see <strong>the</strong>chalkboard when <strong>the</strong> sky is overcast in <strong>the</strong> rainy season or during <strong>the</strong> Harmattan, which has a negativeimpact on educational quality (Dunne et al. 2013). Where <strong>the</strong>re is electricity, it may be restricted to <strong>the</strong>IT suite and head teacher’s <strong>of</strong>fice (Boulton et al. 2009).Given <strong>the</strong> issues surrounding <strong>the</strong> supply <strong>of</strong> electricity and <strong>the</strong> concomitant problems withtelecommunications in Nigeria (Foster and Pushak 2011), it will be a long time before <strong>the</strong> government’sstated desire (as articulated in <strong>the</strong> National Education Policy (FME 2004a)) to integrate ICT into <strong>the</strong>curriculum is realised (Agyeman 2007). Unreliable and sparse electricity will also impede initiatives usingmobile phones for education purposes – as is being proposed for nomadic education, for example(Aderinoye 2007) – as it will be difficult to charge <strong>the</strong>m.EDOREN – Education Data, Research and Evaluation in Nigeria 29
Review <strong>of</strong> <strong>the</strong> <strong>literature</strong> on basic education in Nigeria3.3.2 SecurityThe killing <strong>of</strong> around 50 students at a College <strong>of</strong> Agriculture while <strong>the</strong>y were asleep in <strong>the</strong>ir dormitory inSeptember 2013 brought into sharp relief <strong>the</strong> importance <strong>of</strong> security in educational institutions inNigeria. Even setting aside such extreme cases (see Section 9.8 for fur<strong>the</strong>r details), school security is stilla matter <strong>of</strong> major concern to parents, pupils and education personnel (Bakari 2013; Coinco 2012; NPCand RTI International 2011; Pinnock 2012; UBEC 2012a; UNICEF 2012; Dunne et al. 2013; Gabrscek andUsman 2013). This is <strong>of</strong>ten related to a lack <strong>of</strong> school perimeter, which has been found to have <strong>the</strong>following effects: It encourages pupils to drift <strong>of</strong>f, <strong>the</strong>reby affecting attendance (Boulton et al. 2009; Pinnock 2012;Dunne et al. 2013);It makes it difficult or even impossible for head teachers to monitor <strong>the</strong> coming and going <strong>of</strong> pupilsand staff (Dunne et al. 2013);It makes it difficult to control <strong>the</strong> incursion <strong>of</strong> outsiders during <strong>the</strong> day, sometimes exposing pupilsto violence (Coinco 2012; Amnesty International 2013; Dunne et al. 2013);Is allows vehicles to cross <strong>the</strong> compound, which can result in injuries to pupils (UNICEF 2012; Dunneet al. 2013);It exposes <strong>the</strong> premises to vandalism, <strong>the</strong>ft and <strong>the</strong> use <strong>of</strong> school property, including classrooms, astoilets for humans and livestock (Boulton et al. 2009; Coinco 2012; Dunne et al. 2013). This last issuehas gendered health implications since girls generally do more <strong>of</strong> <strong>the</strong> classroom cleaning than boys(Dunne et al. 2013); andIt allows building encroachment and dumping in school grounds (Coppinger 2009; Dunne et al.2013).On <strong>the</strong> o<strong>the</strong>r hand, communities need to be consulted on <strong>the</strong> fencing <strong>of</strong>f <strong>of</strong> schools, so as not to close<strong>of</strong>f community access routes without community consent; a lack <strong>of</strong> consultation can o<strong>the</strong>rwise result inconflict (Dunne et al. 2013).3.4 Classroom conditions and material resourcesClassroom conditions provide <strong>the</strong> immediate environment within which learning can ei<strong>the</strong>r be enhancedor impeded. As highlighted in Section 3.3, classroom infrastructure is <strong>of</strong>ten very poor in public schoolsand classrooms can be very overcrowded, with inadequate furniture, although <strong>the</strong> situation variesacross zones, states, LGEAs, schools and even within schools. There is evidence across various studiesthat <strong>the</strong> recent increases in enrolments that have followed from successful social mobilisation haveexacerbated <strong>the</strong> issues <strong>of</strong> overcrowded primary classrooms as infrastructural development and <strong>the</strong>supply <strong>of</strong> human and material resources have been unable to keep pace with demand. As a result, <strong>the</strong>very success <strong>of</strong> increasing enrolments is said to be having a detrimental effect on educational quality,<strong>the</strong>reby threatening retention and undermining <strong>the</strong> gains in increased enrolments (Chege et al. 2008;Okojie 2012; UNICEF 2012; Dunne et al. 2013).EDOREN – Education Data, Research and Evaluation in Nigeria 30
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