Review <str<strong>on</strong>g>of</str<strong>on</strong>g> <str<strong>on</strong>g>the</str<strong>on</strong>g> <str<strong>on</strong>g>literature</str<strong>on</strong>g> <strong>on</strong> <strong>basic</strong> educati<strong>on</strong> <strong>in</strong> NigeriaThe proliferati<strong>on</strong> <str<strong>on</strong>g>of</str<strong>on</strong>g> NFE centres also suggests a similar rise <strong>in</strong> <strong>in</strong>terest <strong>in</strong> n<strong>on</strong>-formal modes <str<strong>on</strong>g>of</str<strong>on</strong>g> educati<strong>on</strong>(Chege et al. 2008; UNICEF 2012).Fur<str<strong>on</strong>g>the</str<strong>on</strong>g>r evidence that demand is high lies <strong>in</strong> <str<strong>on</strong>g>the</str<strong>on</strong>g> fact that, accord<strong>in</strong>g to <str<strong>on</strong>g>the</str<strong>on</strong>g> 2010 NEDS (NPC and RTIInternati<strong>on</strong>al, 2011), over 97% <str<strong>on</strong>g>of</str<strong>on</strong>g> parents/guardians c<strong>on</strong>sidered school<strong>in</strong>g to be beneficial for girls andboys. Thus, it may be that parents/guardians want to send children to school <strong>in</strong> <str<strong>on</strong>g>the</str<strong>on</strong>g>ory but that <strong>in</strong>practice, for <strong>on</strong>e or more reas<strong>on</strong>s, children are ei<str<strong>on</strong>g>the</str<strong>on</strong>g>r not enrolled or drop out <str<strong>on</strong>g>of</str<strong>on</strong>g> school. The three ma<strong>in</strong>reas<strong>on</strong>s for pupil n<strong>on</strong>-enrolment are: distance from school, <str<strong>on</strong>g>the</str<strong>on</strong>g> need for children to work (paid andunpaid) and m<strong>on</strong>etary costs. These last two related issues are exam<strong>in</strong>ed below.9.3 Poverty and <str<strong>on</strong>g>the</str<strong>on</strong>g> need for children to workAs highlighted <strong>in</strong> Chapter 2, <str<strong>on</strong>g>the</str<strong>on</strong>g> need for children to work <strong>in</strong> ei<str<strong>on</strong>g>the</str<strong>on</strong>g>r paid or unpaid employment persistsas a major c<strong>on</strong>stra<strong>in</strong>t to educati<strong>on</strong>al participati<strong>on</strong> <strong>in</strong> Nigeria (FME 2005; Okpukpara and Odurukwe 2006;NPC and RTI Internati<strong>on</strong>al 2011; UBEC 2012a). This secti<strong>on</strong> looks <strong>in</strong> more detail at <str<strong>on</strong>g>the</str<strong>on</strong>g> evidence <strong>on</strong> <str<strong>on</strong>g>the</str<strong>on</strong>g>relati<strong>on</strong>ship between poverty and school<strong>in</strong>g and at <str<strong>on</strong>g>the</str<strong>on</strong>g> specific costs – direct and opportunity – thataffect children’s access to and persistence <strong>in</strong> school.Box 9.1 Be<strong>in</strong>g out <str<strong>on</strong>g>of</str<strong>on</strong>g> schoolMy name is Gambo Umar. I am 10 years old. We are four <strong>in</strong> my house that are not <strong>in</strong> school <strong>on</strong>e <str<strong>on</strong>g>of</str<strong>on</strong>g><str<strong>on</strong>g>the</str<strong>on</strong>g>m is older than me. We all want to enter school. I am sav<strong>in</strong>g m<strong>on</strong>ey to enrol <strong>in</strong> school. I fetchwater for people and <str<strong>on</strong>g>the</str<strong>on</strong>g>y pay me to enable me to enter school. I have saved five hundred Naira s<str<strong>on</strong>g>of</str<strong>on</strong>g>ar. I want to buy uniform, sandals and socks to enable me to enter school. I want government toprovide uniform, sandal and socks for me so I can enter school. My mo<str<strong>on</strong>g>the</str<strong>on</strong>g>r will buy books for me. Butfor <str<strong>on</strong>g>the</str<strong>on</strong>g> head teacher, I d<strong>on</strong>’t know what he will do for me, because he said if he gets m<strong>on</strong>ey he willenrol us <strong>in</strong> school.Extract from an <strong>in</strong>terview with an out-<str<strong>on</strong>g>of</str<strong>on</strong>g>-school boy (Dunne et al. 2013: 83)9.3.1 Direct costsCosts associated with school<strong>in</strong>g are frequently cited as a barrier to school enrolment and a cause <str<strong>on</strong>g>of</str<strong>on</strong>g>dropout <strong>in</strong> Nigeria. Although UBE is <str<strong>on</strong>g>the</str<strong>on</strong>g>oretically free for all, <str<strong>on</strong>g>the</str<strong>on</strong>g> reality <strong>on</strong> <str<strong>on</strong>g>the</str<strong>on</strong>g> ground is very different.The 2010 NEDS found that around 60% <str<strong>on</strong>g>of</str<strong>on</strong>g> households were still pay<strong>in</strong>g PTA levies while almost allhouseholds had costs associated with books and supplies (NPC and RTI Internati<strong>on</strong>al 2011). Over 90%were pay<strong>in</strong>g for school uniforms and o<str<strong>on</strong>g>the</str<strong>on</strong>g>r school materials, which L<strong>in</strong>cove’s (2009) study foundcomprised <str<strong>on</strong>g>the</str<strong>on</strong>g> bulk <str<strong>on</strong>g>of</str<strong>on</strong>g> school expenses and which o<str<strong>on</strong>g>the</str<strong>on</strong>g>r studies have also highlighted (e.g. Urwick 2002;Sunal et al. 2003; FME 2005; Acti<strong>on</strong>Aid 2011; UBEC 2012a; Dunne et al. 2013). More positively, NEDS2010 also found that household expenditure per pupil <strong>in</strong> government schools had decreased by aroundhalf s<strong>in</strong>ce 2004. Even so, am<strong>on</strong>g parents/guardians whose children had never been to school m<strong>on</strong>etarycosts were cited as <str<strong>on</strong>g>the</str<strong>on</strong>g> third most comm<strong>on</strong> reas<strong>on</strong> given for n<strong>on</strong>-enrolment (after distance to schooland <str<strong>on</strong>g>the</str<strong>on</strong>g> need for child labour – also a cost-related reas<strong>on</strong>), affect<strong>in</strong>g around a quarter <str<strong>on</strong>g>of</str<strong>on</strong>g> children.Moreover, cost was <str<strong>on</strong>g>the</str<strong>on</strong>g> most comm<strong>on</strong>ly cited cause <str<strong>on</strong>g>of</str<strong>on</strong>g> dropp<strong>in</strong>g out <str<strong>on</strong>g>of</str<strong>on</strong>g> primary school, affect<strong>in</strong>g a third<str<strong>on</strong>g>of</str<strong>on</strong>g> dropouts nati<strong>on</strong>ally – boys (35.7%) more than girls (29.7%) and more <strong>in</strong> urban areas (40.4%) than <strong>in</strong>rural areas (30.9%) – irrespective <str<strong>on</strong>g>of</str<strong>on</strong>g> socio-ec<strong>on</strong>omic status.In <str<strong>on</strong>g>the</str<strong>on</strong>g> 2004 ESA poverty was a major reas<strong>on</strong> for withdrawal from school and over half <str<strong>on</strong>g>the</str<strong>on</strong>g> parentssampled cited f<strong>in</strong>ancial reas<strong>on</strong>s for not send<strong>in</strong>g <str<strong>on</strong>g>the</str<strong>on</strong>g>ir children to JSS, which pupil <strong>in</strong>terviews c<strong>on</strong>firmed(FME 2005).L<strong>in</strong>cove’s (2009) analysis <str<strong>on</strong>g>of</str<strong>on</strong>g> comb<strong>in</strong>ed NDHS 2003 and NEDS 2004 data for just under 4,000 childrenaged 6–12 resulted <strong>in</strong> <str<strong>on</strong>g>the</str<strong>on</strong>g> f<strong>in</strong>d<strong>in</strong>g that <strong>on</strong>ly 15% <str<strong>on</strong>g>of</str<strong>on</strong>g> children actually get free educati<strong>on</strong>. The study foundEDOREN – Educati<strong>on</strong> Data, Research and Evaluati<strong>on</strong> <strong>in</strong> Nigeria 101
Review <str<strong>on</strong>g>of</str<strong>on</strong>g> <str<strong>on</strong>g>the</str<strong>on</strong>g> <str<strong>on</strong>g>literature</str<strong>on</strong>g> <strong>on</strong> <strong>basic</strong> educati<strong>on</strong> <strong>in</strong> Nigeriathat, generally speak<strong>in</strong>g, wealthier children are actually more likely to receive free educati<strong>on</strong>.Specifically, free school<strong>in</strong>g is more likely to be available to access <strong>in</strong> <str<strong>on</strong>g>the</str<strong>on</strong>g> relatively wealthier urban areasand sou<str<strong>on</strong>g>the</str<strong>on</strong>g>rn regi<strong>on</strong>s <str<strong>on</strong>g>of</str<strong>on</strong>g> <str<strong>on</strong>g>the</str<strong>on</strong>g> country than <strong>in</strong> <str<strong>on</strong>g>the</str<strong>on</strong>g> poorer z<strong>on</strong>es <str<strong>on</strong>g>of</str<strong>on</strong>g> <str<strong>on</strong>g>the</str<strong>on</strong>g> North West and North East, whoseschool-age children make up 65% <str<strong>on</strong>g>of</str<strong>on</strong>g> <str<strong>on</strong>g>the</str<strong>on</strong>g> data set. Girls are slightly less likely than boys to have freeschool<strong>in</strong>g (14.1% to 16%), with Muslim pupils c<strong>on</strong>siderably less likely to have free school<strong>in</strong>g (12.7%) thanChristian pupils (19.5%).The 2004 ESA also collected <strong>in</strong>formati<strong>on</strong> <strong>on</strong> household spend<strong>in</strong>g at <str<strong>on</strong>g>the</str<strong>on</strong>g> ECCE, Primary and JSS levels. Atall three levels, cloth<strong>in</strong>g and miscellaneous costs (which <strong>in</strong>cluded transport and lunch) were higher thanthose for learn<strong>in</strong>g materials and fees (FME 2005). The report highlighted <str<strong>on</strong>g>the</str<strong>on</strong>g> need to reduce such hiddencosts <str<strong>on</strong>g>of</str<strong>on</strong>g> school<strong>in</strong>g for parents.The persistence <str<strong>on</strong>g>of</str<strong>on</strong>g> PTA levies, as well as o<str<strong>on</strong>g>the</str<strong>on</strong>g>r fees (for example, for exam<strong>in</strong>ati<strong>on</strong>s, school registrati<strong>on</strong>and/or o<str<strong>on</strong>g>the</str<strong>on</strong>g>r ad hoc payments), has been widely documented <strong>in</strong> studies and has <str<strong>on</strong>g>of</str<strong>on</strong>g>ten been attributedto <str<strong>on</strong>g>the</str<strong>on</strong>g> need for schools to make up for shortfalls <strong>in</strong> government fund<strong>in</strong>g (e.g. Urwick 2002; Sunal et al.2003, Flett et al. 2005, cited <strong>in</strong> Theobald et al. 2007; Ant<strong>on</strong><strong>in</strong>is 2010; Santcross et al. 2010; Acti<strong>on</strong>Aid2012; Dunne et al. 2013). In <str<strong>on</strong>g>the</str<strong>on</strong>g> recent TEGINT endl<strong>in</strong>e survey <strong>in</strong> six states across nor<str<strong>on</strong>g>the</str<strong>on</strong>g>rn Nigeria, itwas noted that although around 75% <str<strong>on</strong>g>of</str<strong>on</strong>g> PTA levies had rema<strong>in</strong>ed <str<strong>on</strong>g>the</str<strong>on</strong>g> same as for <str<strong>on</strong>g>the</str<strong>on</strong>g> basel<strong>in</strong>e survey afew years earlier, over 25% had <strong>in</strong>creased <str<strong>on</strong>g>the</str<strong>on</strong>g>ir fees, cit<strong>in</strong>g <strong>in</strong>creased runn<strong>in</strong>g costs due to moreambitious SDPs (Acti<strong>on</strong>Aid 2012). In <str<strong>on</strong>g>the</str<strong>on</strong>g> country’s <strong>on</strong>ly nati<strong>on</strong>al labour survey, <strong>in</strong>ability to pay fees was<str<strong>on</strong>g>the</str<strong>on</strong>g> most widespread reas<strong>on</strong> for dropp<strong>in</strong>g out given by work<strong>in</strong>g children who had withdrawn fromschool (FOS/ILO 2001). More recent studies have c<strong>on</strong>firmed that fees c<strong>on</strong>t<strong>in</strong>ue be a major obstacle toparticipati<strong>on</strong> <strong>in</strong> school<strong>in</strong>g <strong>in</strong> nor<str<strong>on</strong>g>the</str<strong>on</strong>g>rn Nigeria (UNICEF 2009a; Acti<strong>on</strong>Aid 2011, 2012; Mahdi andAsubiario-Dada, forthcom<strong>in</strong>g, cited <strong>in</strong> British Council 2012; UBEC 2012a; UNICEF 2012; Dunne et al.2013).Pupils’ <strong>in</strong>ability to pay school fees or levies or to provide <str<strong>on</strong>g>the</str<strong>on</strong>g> requisite school equipment can also result<strong>in</strong> <str<strong>on</strong>g>the</str<strong>on</strong>g>ir be<strong>in</strong>g denied admissi<strong>on</strong> to school or can lead to corporal punishment by teachers, which <strong>in</strong> turnmay lead to absenteeism and dropout (Flett et al. 2005, cited <strong>in</strong> Theobald et al. 2007; Acti<strong>on</strong>Aid 2011;UNICEF 2012; Dunne et al. 2013; Gabrscek and Usman 2013). Pupils <str<strong>on</strong>g>the</str<strong>on</strong>g>mselves will <str<strong>on</strong>g>of</str<strong>on</strong>g>ten be absentfrom school to earn m<strong>on</strong>ey specifically to pay for educati<strong>on</strong>al costs (FOS/ILO 2001; Acti<strong>on</strong>Aid 2011;UNICEF 2012; Dunne et al. 2013), sometimes for younger sibl<strong>in</strong>gs (Samuels et al. 2012). The TEGINTstudy reported that some girls engaged <strong>in</strong> transacti<strong>on</strong>al sex <strong>in</strong> order to earn m<strong>on</strong>ey for school (Acti<strong>on</strong>Aid2011). Sunal et al.’s (2003) small <strong>in</strong>terview-based study <str<strong>on</strong>g>of</str<strong>on</strong>g> 40 teachers and 40 parents from six states <strong>in</strong>both <str<strong>on</strong>g>the</str<strong>on</strong>g> north and south (<strong>in</strong>clud<strong>in</strong>g both parents with children <strong>in</strong> and not <strong>in</strong> school) noted that,although parents and teachers were <strong>in</strong> favour <str<strong>on</strong>g>of</str<strong>on</strong>g> school<strong>in</strong>g for all children, <str<strong>on</strong>g>the</str<strong>on</strong>g>y admitted that whenm<strong>on</strong>ey was tight sometimes decisi<strong>on</strong>s had to be made about who to school.However, <str<strong>on</strong>g>the</str<strong>on</strong>g> relati<strong>on</strong>ship between poverty and enrolment <strong>in</strong> school<strong>in</strong>g is not straightforward; o<str<strong>on</strong>g>the</str<strong>on</strong>g>rfactors such as educati<strong>on</strong>al quality and potential ga<strong>in</strong>s from school<strong>in</strong>g come <strong>in</strong>to play. Even poor familiesare prepared to pay to send children to school (L<strong>in</strong>cove 2009; Härmä 2011b), although c<strong>on</strong>siderati<strong>on</strong> <str<strong>on</strong>g>of</str<strong>on</strong>g>educati<strong>on</strong>al quality, however it is def<strong>in</strong>ed, is an important factor (Sunal et al. 2003). Data from <str<strong>on</strong>g>the</str<strong>on</strong>g> 2010NEDS (NPC and RTI Internati<strong>on</strong>al 2011) back this up. For example, when parents/guardians were askedto identify <str<strong>on</strong>g>the</str<strong>on</strong>g> ma<strong>in</strong> c<strong>on</strong>siderati<strong>on</strong> for primary school selecti<strong>on</strong>, cost was identified by <strong>on</strong>ly 13% <str<strong>on</strong>g>of</str<strong>on</strong>g>households, and by an even smaller percentage <strong>in</strong> <str<strong>on</strong>g>the</str<strong>on</strong>g> bottom two wealth qu<strong>in</strong>tiles; school proximity(53%) and school quality (30%) were more frequently cited. For choice <str<strong>on</strong>g>of</str<strong>on</strong>g> sec<strong>on</strong>dary school too, schoolcost came third aga<strong>in</strong>, beh<strong>in</strong>d school quality and school proximity, although a higher percentage <str<strong>on</strong>g>of</str<strong>on</strong>g>parents c<strong>on</strong>sidered it to be <str<strong>on</strong>g>the</str<strong>on</strong>g> most important factor (21.1%).EDOREN – Educati<strong>on</strong> Data, Research and Evaluati<strong>on</strong> <strong>in</strong> Nigeria 102
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