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Review <strong>of</strong> <strong>the</strong> <strong>literature</strong> on basic education in NigeriaThere is an absence <strong>of</strong> national data on pupil (or teacher) attendance and latecoming and <strong>the</strong>re is noknown research that has focused on <strong>the</strong> issue despite its critical impact on pupils’ access to learningopportunities and retention. However, survey and qualitative data both indicate that pupil absenteeismand latecoming are common, especially at particular times <strong>of</strong> <strong>the</strong> year in rural areas (e.g. during plantingand harvesting, when labour is needed in <strong>the</strong> fields). Attendance is also low on market days (whenpupils go to trade and hawk), when it rains heavily or during <strong>the</strong> Harmattan season, 2 as well as early in<strong>the</strong> morning if Muslim pupils are released late from Qur’anic school and in <strong>the</strong> afternoons in doubleshiftschools.There are reports <strong>of</strong> some communities through <strong>the</strong> SBMC starting <strong>the</strong>ir own community-based datamanagementsystems to try and monitor attendance and/or making home visits to encourage childrenback into school, with some apparent degree <strong>of</strong> success.There is, however, little evidence so far <strong>of</strong> flexibility and community negotiation in timetabling schoolholidays and school hours to coincide more with community needs, in order to improve pupilattendance. Little is known about <strong>the</strong> timetabled contact time in class, which in one study was as little as2hr 35min, once time had been subtracted for assembly, cleaning, breaks, etc.DutiesSchool duties – particularly cleaning – can take up much <strong>of</strong> <strong>the</strong> school day in Nigeria. The one study thatlooked at school labour found it to be a source <strong>of</strong> complaint among some pupils, impacting negativelyon educational quality and gender equality as tasks are <strong>of</strong>ten gender specific and gender stereotyped.Pupil disciplineAlthough corporal punishment is now forbidden in schools, excessive corporal punishment is widelyreported and is <strong>of</strong>ten for ‘<strong>of</strong>fences’ for which children are not responsible (e.g. non-payment <strong>of</strong> PTAlevies). It has been found to result in: emotional distress; pupil inability to concentrate and reducedpupil participation in class; pupil absenteeism and dropout (especially among nomads); parental conflict(including withdrawal <strong>of</strong> pupils from school, despite <strong>the</strong> fact that <strong>the</strong>re is widespread approval for <strong>the</strong>practice in principle); and permanent physical damage to pupils in some extreme cases. Beating is <strong>of</strong>tengender-differentiated, with boys reportedly being beaten more <strong>of</strong>ten and more harshly than girls.Alternative or complementary punishments, however, are <strong>of</strong>ten still physical and/or humiliating and/ortake time away from learning, such as being made to run round <strong>the</strong> classroom or pick up litter duringlesson time, carrying a heavy stone, or frog-jumping. Pupils are also sometimes excluded from school aspunishment for not having <strong>the</strong> complete uniform or <strong>the</strong>ir writing materials.There is no available documentation on whe<strong>the</strong>r less punitive disciplinary systems <strong>of</strong> pupil managementare in operation (such as in UNICEF’s Child-Friendly Schools (CFSs)) and, if so, what <strong>the</strong> effects are onpupils, teachers and community–school relations. Teachers and head teachers appear to need in-servicesupport on alternative strategies for pupil management.Prefect/monitor systemThe limited available research suggests that, although prefects sometimes provide support or give a‘voice’ to pupils, <strong>the</strong> system is more concerned with perpetuating violent disciplinary practices, giventhat it is prefects and monitors that <strong>of</strong>ten physically discipline peers. It is unknown how much <strong>of</strong> <strong>the</strong>2The Harmattan is a dry trade wind that blows south from <strong>the</strong> Sahara from <strong>the</strong> end <strong>of</strong> November to mid-March, blocking out<strong>the</strong> sun and bringing thick dust, which affects visibility.EDOREN – Education Data, Research and Evaluation in Nigeriaxv
Review <strong>of</strong> <strong>the</strong> <strong>literature</strong> on basic education in Nigeriabullying/violence discussed elsewhere is in fact <strong>of</strong>ficially sanctioned through <strong>the</strong> prefect/monitorsystem.The prefect system also works against gender equality by underlining an explicit gender hierarchy in <strong>the</strong>school, as <strong>the</strong> head girl is in charge <strong>of</strong> disciplining girls and <strong>the</strong> head boy is <strong>the</strong> head prefect and thus incharge <strong>of</strong> both boys and girls. Jobs that carry status and responsibility are usually given to boys whereasdomestic jobs are more <strong>of</strong>ten given to female pupils.Pupil–pupil relationsSeveral studies have investigated bullying and peer violence among children and found it to bewidespread (as in many o<strong>the</strong>r countries), with both girls and boys bullying and being bullied and girlsand younger boys generally being bullied more by older boys. Over-age pupils, and over-age boys inparticular, are prone both to bullying and being bullied. Nomadic children and almajirai are also <strong>of</strong>tenbullied in government schools. There is some evidence <strong>of</strong> truancy and dropout on account <strong>of</strong> bullying,although <strong>the</strong> effects <strong>of</strong> bullying need investigating more fully.The need for ‘safe spaces’ for children to talk has been highlighted. Research is also needed on <strong>the</strong>availability and effectiveness <strong>of</strong> guidance and counselling services in schools and student experiences <strong>of</strong><strong>the</strong>m.Much more information is needed on pupils’ lives inside (and outside) school and <strong>the</strong>ir views on variousaspects <strong>of</strong> school life, including peer relations and <strong>the</strong> ways in which gender, religion, ethnicity, socioeconomicstatus and age have an impact on pupils.13. COMMUNITY INVOLVEMENT IN SCHOOLINGIncreasing community involvement in schooling is a key strategy in decentralised government, whichaims to help improve <strong>the</strong> quality <strong>of</strong> education, to improve school accountability and to share <strong>the</strong>financial burden <strong>of</strong> education.Financial sustainability and equity are two important issues that need addressing to ensure <strong>the</strong> future <strong>of</strong><strong>the</strong> SBMC model <strong>of</strong> decentralised governance. Simply put, without government funding SBMCs cannotfunction. Guidelines on accessing funds need to be equitable; systems need to be put in place to makesure that poor communities that are unable to provide matched funding and/or do not have <strong>the</strong>capacity to produce a development plan are not fur<strong>the</strong>r disadvantaged by receiving no financial support.Formal involvement <strong>of</strong> parents is through <strong>the</strong> PTA and, to a lesser extent, <strong>the</strong> SBMC, although schoolsmay also be supported by o<strong>the</strong>r community-based organisations (CBOs) and religious organisations.There is confusion over <strong>the</strong> roles and functions <strong>of</strong> SBMCs and PTAs and some evidence <strong>of</strong> tension whenboth are operational, although <strong>the</strong>re are o<strong>the</strong>r examples <strong>of</strong> <strong>the</strong>m working well toge<strong>the</strong>r.The PTA is <strong>the</strong> more established organisation; its activities are funded through PTA levies, which areoutlawed or <strong>the</strong>oretically limited in some states but provide <strong>the</strong> only source <strong>of</strong> income for some schools.PTAs usually provide finance and/or labour and materials for construction and repairs, salaries forsupplementary teachers and a channel <strong>of</strong> communication between <strong>the</strong> school and community, albeitgenerally from <strong>the</strong> school to <strong>the</strong> community. The PTA is not usually involved in school management.There have been complaints <strong>of</strong> political interference in PTAs, a lack <strong>of</strong> transparency in relation to fundsand <strong>the</strong> lack <strong>of</strong> a ‘voice’ for <strong>the</strong> ordinary community member.The SBMC is a more recent development. Where supported by donors/government, monitored andgiven access to grants, SBMCs have succeeded in improving school infrastructure and mobilisingcommunities to increase enrolment levels, especially in regard to girls. Involvement in management hasEDOREN – Education Data, Research and Evaluation in Nigeriaxvi
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