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Review <strong>of</strong> <strong>the</strong> <strong>literature</strong> on basic education in Nigeriafemale trainee teachers have benefitted from <strong>the</strong> scheme in Bauchi, Katsina, Niger and Sokoto, with<strong>the</strong> first awardees about to graduate at <strong>the</strong> time <strong>of</strong> GEP II’s evaluation (UNICEF 2012).Garuba (2010) did <strong>the</strong> first evaluation <strong>of</strong> <strong>the</strong> scheme and made <strong>the</strong> following points:Communities are positive and, in some villages, girls’ enrolment has reportedly increased just at<strong>the</strong> prospect <strong>of</strong> <strong>the</strong> awardee returning from training (also UNICEF 2012);The scheme was said to be helping to change attitudes toward girls’ education (also UNICEF2012); and Awardees <strong>the</strong>mselves are generally positive and feel more confident (also UNICEF 2012).However, <strong>the</strong>re are major difficulties that threaten <strong>the</strong> initiative, which include:Delays in payment <strong>of</strong> <strong>the</strong> stipendThose on <strong>the</strong> UNICEF payroll were being paid promptly; those on <strong>the</strong> government payroll were not,which was a cause <strong>of</strong> friction among <strong>the</strong> awardees. State payments were at least 12 months behind inat least two states at <strong>the</strong> time <strong>of</strong> <strong>the</strong> later evaluation (UNICEF 2012).Extra costsTrainees struggled to pay <strong>the</strong> extra costs not covered by <strong>the</strong> scholarship, such as transport forteaching practice.Poor hostel accommodationHostel accommodation lacked adequate kitchen, sanitation and childcare facilities, and security wasalso an issue (UNICEF 2012).Overlong teaching commitmentThere was a request for <strong>the</strong> two-year teaching commitment that goes with <strong>the</strong> scholarship to bereduced to one year since some saw it as a potential obstacle to marital aspirations, although <strong>the</strong>later evaluation (UNICEF 2012) said that <strong>the</strong> majority <strong>of</strong> <strong>the</strong> 150 awardees interviewed had ‘noproblem’ with <strong>the</strong> bond.SafetyThere have been reports <strong>of</strong> sexual harassment and assault. Approximately 50% <strong>of</strong> <strong>the</strong> awardees said<strong>the</strong>y felt unsafe in <strong>the</strong> accommodation (UNICEF 2012).Awardee performanceMost <strong>of</strong> <strong>the</strong> awardees were struggling to learn in English and could ‘scarcely communicate in English’after two years <strong>of</strong> training. Almost all had at least one course <strong>the</strong>y would have to repeat and alllecturers interviewed commented on <strong>the</strong> awardees’ low performance levels, which meant <strong>the</strong>y wereunlikely to complete in three years (Garuba 2010). In response, remedial English courses and pre-NCEcourses were being planned by <strong>the</strong> colleges (Garuba 2010; UNICEF 2012).Gender imbalance on <strong>the</strong> college staffNo female staff members were in senior management positions in <strong>the</strong> colleges <strong>of</strong> education visited,nor were any included on <strong>the</strong> FTTSS management committees (UNICEF 2012).EDOREN – Education Data, Research and Evaluation in Nigeria 93
Review <strong>of</strong> <strong>the</strong> <strong>literature</strong> on basic education in NigeriaSustainability <strong>of</strong> <strong>the</strong> projectGaruba (2010) had doubts about who would shoulder <strong>the</strong> financial burden after UNICEF fundingfinishes, although <strong>the</strong> final evaluation for GEP II noted that 77% <strong>of</strong> <strong>the</strong> costs were being borne bystate funding and NGOs while LGEAs in Bauchi and Niger had sponsored additional scholarships in2010/11.Both evaluations highlighted <strong>the</strong> need for a proper impact evaluation <strong>of</strong> <strong>the</strong> scheme, and it wassuggested that female teachers be tracked for a couple <strong>of</strong> years to see to what extent commitmentsare honoured to remain in rural schools (UNICEF 2012). Nei<strong>the</strong>r evaluation considers in detailwhe<strong>the</strong>r this scheme is going to have a positive impact on <strong>the</strong> quality <strong>of</strong> teaching in rural schools.8.6 Boys and schoolingThe picture on boys’ schooling is limited, being hidden within <strong>the</strong> gender-neutral term ‘children’. As aresult, most <strong>of</strong> <strong>the</strong> issues affecting both girls and boys are covered in o<strong>the</strong>r sections <strong>of</strong> <strong>the</strong> report.Where boys are specifically mentioned, <strong>the</strong> picture is mixed. Several reports note that initiatives aimedprimarily at boosting girls’ participation in schooling have also boosted boys’ participation (Chege et al.2008; Adediran 2010). At <strong>the</strong> same time, GEP I evaluations reported that boys were dropping out <strong>of</strong>school in increasing numbers (Chege et al. 2008; Okojie 2008).8.6.1 Factors affecting boysBoys as well as girls may be denied access due to poverty (actual and opportunity costs) (FOS/ILO 2001).The desire or need to earn money has resulted in <strong>the</strong> non-enrolment, withdrawal or dropout <strong>of</strong> boys inrural areas to undertake agricultural labour, and in <strong>the</strong> case <strong>of</strong> nomadic Hausa-Fulani boys to herd cattle(Okojie 2008; Chege et al. 2008). Within more urban areas, boys drop out to trade, carry loads, or workas bus conductors (FOS/ILO 2001). Boys from more socially deprived backgrounds are also more likely tojoin gangs, cults or become ‘area boys’ later, and <strong>the</strong>refore be both perpetrators and victims <strong>of</strong> violence(although some all-female gangs exist) (Matusitz and Repass 2009).Most children living on <strong>the</strong> streets are boys. Aransiola et al.’s (2009) study <strong>of</strong> 1,500 street children inKaduna, Lagos and Port Harcourt, which included adolescents who had ei<strong>the</strong>r never been to school orhad dropped out, were predominantly male (83.1%). In Kaduna <strong>the</strong> proportion <strong>of</strong> male respondents washigher (93.4%), where a number could probably be categorised as almajirai, though <strong>the</strong> term was notused in <strong>the</strong> paper. Boys living on <strong>the</strong> street were found to be vulnerable to abuse by <strong>the</strong> policeauthorities, who <strong>of</strong>ten reportedly molested, detained <strong>the</strong>m and/or extracted bribes (ibid.). Almajirai aresimilarly at risk (see below).Within schools, boys seem to be subjected to more and harsher corporal punishment based on genderstereotypednotions <strong>of</strong> boys being stronger and naughtier (Bakari 2013; Dunne et al. 2013; see alsoSection 12.2.4). Fur<strong>the</strong>rmore, boys – especially younger boys – also tend to experience higher levels <strong>of</strong>bullying and peer violence than girls (Egbochuku 2007; Adefunke 2010).Okojie (2008: 13) noted: ‘Increasing female access to education should not be at <strong>the</strong> expense <strong>of</strong> boysdropping out <strong>of</strong> school.’ In addition, Chege et al. (2008: 36) warned: ‘The risk <strong>of</strong> side-lining <strong>the</strong> boys in<strong>the</strong> process <strong>of</strong> promoting girls and women’s education may reverse gains made in overall enrolment andparticipation,’ on account <strong>of</strong> ‘possible backlashes that may manifest [<strong>the</strong>mselves] in hostile genderrelations between boys and girls’. Thus, for example, what was initially promoted as a scholarshipscheme for girls in Niger State was opened up to boys as well after <strong>the</strong>re was protest at <strong>the</strong>discrimination against boys (Okojie 2012). It is claimed that one <strong>of</strong> <strong>the</strong> reasons boys in <strong>the</strong> South Eastdrop out from school is because where schools have more girls and female teachers <strong>the</strong> minorityEDOREN – Education Data, Research and Evaluation in Nigeria 94
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