Review <str<strong>on</strong>g>of</str<strong>on</strong>g> <str<strong>on</strong>g>the</str<strong>on</strong>g> <str<strong>on</strong>g>literature</str<strong>on</strong>g> <strong>on</strong> <strong>basic</strong> educati<strong>on</strong> <strong>in</strong> NigeriaGaps <strong>in</strong> research: school quality – teach<strong>in</strong>g and learn<strong>in</strong>gA substantial body <str<strong>on</strong>g>of</str<strong>on</strong>g> research has c<strong>on</strong>sistently documented many <str<strong>on</strong>g>of</str<strong>on</strong>g> <str<strong>on</strong>g>the</str<strong>on</strong>g> features <str<strong>on</strong>g>of</str<strong>on</strong>g> classroom teach<strong>in</strong>gand learn<strong>in</strong>g that characterise <str<strong>on</strong>g>the</str<strong>on</strong>g> generally poor quality <str<strong>on</strong>g>of</str<strong>on</strong>g> teach<strong>in</strong>g and learn<strong>in</strong>g <strong>in</strong> many Nigerianschools. Some <str<strong>on</strong>g>of</str<strong>on</strong>g> <str<strong>on</strong>g>the</str<strong>on</strong>g>se features relate to difficult teach<strong>in</strong>g c<strong>on</strong>diti<strong>on</strong>s and lack <str<strong>on</strong>g>of</str<strong>on</strong>g> <strong>in</strong>frastructural andteach<strong>in</strong>g resources but more <str<strong>on</strong>g>of</str<strong>on</strong>g>ten <str<strong>on</strong>g>the</str<strong>on</strong>g> reas<strong>on</strong>s lie with <strong>in</strong>adequate teacher preparati<strong>on</strong>, motivati<strong>on</strong>and/or supervisi<strong>on</strong>.Studies are needed that look more at <str<strong>on</strong>g>the</str<strong>on</strong>g> classroom processes and that identify <str<strong>on</strong>g>the</str<strong>on</strong>g> specific features thataid or h<strong>in</strong>der teach<strong>in</strong>g and learn<strong>in</strong>g, with more use <str<strong>on</strong>g>of</str<strong>on</strong>g> classroom observati<strong>on</strong> that goes bey<strong>on</strong>d merelyquantify<strong>in</strong>g particular behaviours. Studies also need to seek pupil and teacher views <strong>on</strong> particular issues.What do pupils th<strong>in</strong>k helps <str<strong>on</strong>g>the</str<strong>on</strong>g>m to learn or prevents <str<strong>on</strong>g>the</str<strong>on</strong>g>m from learn<strong>in</strong>g <strong>in</strong> class? What are <str<strong>on</strong>g>the</str<strong>on</strong>g>teach<strong>in</strong>g techniques <str<strong>on</strong>g>the</str<strong>on</strong>g>y f<strong>in</strong>d useful? What are <str<strong>on</strong>g>the</str<strong>on</strong>g> classroom c<strong>on</strong>diti<strong>on</strong>s, both physical and social, tha<str<strong>on</strong>g>the</str<strong>on</strong>g>lp pupils learn? What are <str<strong>on</strong>g>the</str<strong>on</strong>g> out-<str<strong>on</strong>g>of</str<strong>on</strong>g>-school (e.g. hunger, ill health, etc.) and <strong>in</strong>-school factors (e.g.MOI, overcrowded classrooms, classroom peer relati<strong>on</strong>s, etc.) that have an impact <strong>on</strong> pupil learn<strong>in</strong>g andhow do <str<strong>on</strong>g>the</str<strong>on</strong>g>y <strong>in</strong>terrelate?The MOI is a vital area for research but studies need to go bey<strong>on</strong>d ask<strong>in</strong>g resp<strong>on</strong>dents for <str<strong>on</strong>g>the</str<strong>on</strong>g>ir languagepreferences, which has predom<strong>in</strong>antly been <str<strong>on</strong>g>the</str<strong>on</strong>g> research focus so far. Observati<strong>on</strong>al studies are neededthat establish which languages are actually used <strong>in</strong> <str<strong>on</strong>g>the</str<strong>on</strong>g> classroom and <strong>in</strong> what ways, <strong>in</strong> both (relatively)m<strong>on</strong>ol<strong>in</strong>gual and multil<strong>in</strong>gual sett<strong>in</strong>gs. What impact does this have <strong>on</strong> learn<strong>in</strong>g? How does <str<strong>on</strong>g>the</str<strong>on</strong>g> MOIaffect teacher pedagogy? How is code-switch<strong>in</strong>g used to facilitate learn<strong>in</strong>g? How are different languagesused to <strong>in</strong>clude or exclude learners? How do teachers adapt teach<strong>in</strong>g <strong>in</strong> multil<strong>in</strong>gual sett<strong>in</strong>gs? How dom<strong>in</strong>ority-language speakers cope <strong>in</strong> <str<strong>on</strong>g>the</str<strong>on</strong>g> classroom? What is textbook availability <strong>in</strong> different languages?To what extent and <strong>in</strong> what ways does <str<strong>on</strong>g>the</str<strong>on</strong>g> teacher help pupils understand English-language textbooksby code-switch<strong>in</strong>g?Teacher–pupil and pupil–peer relati<strong>on</strong>s and pupil wellbe<strong>in</strong>g are critical to creat<strong>in</strong>g a c<strong>on</strong>duciveenvir<strong>on</strong>ment for learn<strong>in</strong>g. What are <str<strong>on</strong>g>the</str<strong>on</strong>g> features <str<strong>on</strong>g>of</str<strong>on</strong>g> teacher–pupil relati<strong>on</strong>s that produce a good learn<strong>in</strong>genvir<strong>on</strong>ment? How do issues <str<strong>on</strong>g>of</str<strong>on</strong>g> gender and culture affect <str<strong>on</strong>g>the</str<strong>on</strong>g>se classroom relati<strong>on</strong>s? How couldidentified difficulties be addressed? In what ways do teachers <strong>in</strong>teract with pupils outside class thatimpact positively <strong>on</strong> pupil wellbe<strong>in</strong>g and enthusiasm for learn<strong>in</strong>g? What are <str<strong>on</strong>g>the</str<strong>on</strong>g> features <str<strong>on</strong>g>of</str<strong>on</strong>g> positive peer<strong>in</strong>teracti<strong>on</strong>s? What k<strong>in</strong>ds <str<strong>on</strong>g>of</str<strong>on</strong>g> peer <strong>in</strong>teracti<strong>on</strong>s are hav<strong>in</strong>g a detrimental effect <strong>on</strong> learn<strong>in</strong>g? Who isaffected? What could be d<strong>on</strong>e to improve <str<strong>on</strong>g>the</str<strong>on</strong>g> situati<strong>on</strong>?Teachers’ two ma<strong>in</strong> teach<strong>in</strong>g aids (bey<strong>on</strong>d <str<strong>on</strong>g>the</str<strong>on</strong>g>mselves) are <str<strong>on</strong>g>the</str<strong>on</strong>g> chalk board and <str<strong>on</strong>g>the</str<strong>on</strong>g> textbook. How are<str<strong>on</strong>g>the</str<strong>on</strong>g>se teach<strong>in</strong>g aids, where available, be<strong>in</strong>g used to facilitate learn<strong>in</strong>g? How could teachers improve <str<strong>on</strong>g>the</str<strong>on</strong>g>iruse <str<strong>on</strong>g>of</str<strong>on</strong>g> <str<strong>on</strong>g>the</str<strong>on</strong>g>se teach<strong>in</strong>g aids? How do successful teachers manage to adapt <str<strong>on</strong>g>the</str<strong>on</strong>g> use <str<strong>on</strong>g>of</str<strong>on</strong>g> textbooks <strong>in</strong> <str<strong>on</strong>g>the</str<strong>on</strong>g>irteach<strong>in</strong>g <strong>in</strong> relati<strong>on</strong> to textbook shortages? To what extent does <str<strong>on</strong>g>the</str<strong>on</strong>g> language <strong>in</strong> which <str<strong>on</strong>g>the</str<strong>on</strong>g> textbook iswritten have an impact <strong>on</strong> <str<strong>on</strong>g>the</str<strong>on</strong>g> way it is used and/or its effectiveness?Research is needed <strong>in</strong>to what goes <strong>on</strong> <strong>in</strong> terms <str<strong>on</strong>g>of</str<strong>on</strong>g> teach<strong>in</strong>g and learn<strong>in</strong>g <strong>in</strong> IQTE and nomadic schools. Inwhat ways are <str<strong>on</strong>g>the</str<strong>on</strong>g> processes similar to and/or different from regular public schools? What can regularschools learn from IQTE or nomadic schools that would help improve school quality (and vice versa)?How do gender issues play out and affect learn<strong>in</strong>g?The 2004 ESA and <str<strong>on</strong>g>the</str<strong>on</strong>g> PTTE talked about <str<strong>on</strong>g>the</str<strong>on</strong>g> need for schools to educate <str<strong>on</strong>g>the</str<strong>on</strong>g> whole child, and not justfocus <strong>on</strong> academic atta<strong>in</strong>ment. What o<str<strong>on</strong>g>the</str<strong>on</strong>g>r types <str<strong>on</strong>g>of</str<strong>on</strong>g> learn<strong>in</strong>g are go<strong>in</strong>g <strong>on</strong> <strong>in</strong> schools? How could <str<strong>on</strong>g>the</str<strong>on</strong>g>sebe fur<str<strong>on</strong>g>the</str<strong>on</strong>g>r enhanced?How is <strong>in</strong>clusi<strong>on</strong> be<strong>in</strong>g managed <strong>in</strong> schools <strong>in</strong> terms <str<strong>on</strong>g>of</str<strong>on</strong>g> access and quality? What are teachers, headteachers and pupils’ understand<strong>in</strong>gs <str<strong>on</strong>g>of</str<strong>on</strong>g> <strong>in</strong>clusi<strong>on</strong>? What are schools actively do<strong>in</strong>g to promote it? Whatare <str<strong>on</strong>g>the</str<strong>on</strong>g> obstacles to implement<strong>in</strong>g <strong>in</strong>clusive practices <strong>in</strong> school? How could <str<strong>on</strong>g>the</str<strong>on</strong>g>y be addressed?EDOREN – Educati<strong>on</strong> Data, Research and Evaluati<strong>on</strong> <strong>in</strong> Nigeria 159
Review <str<strong>on</strong>g>of</str<strong>on</strong>g> <str<strong>on</strong>g>the</str<strong>on</strong>g> <str<strong>on</strong>g>literature</str<strong>on</strong>g> <strong>on</strong> <strong>basic</strong> educati<strong>on</strong> <strong>in</strong> NigeriaGaps <strong>in</strong> research: school quality – teacher educati<strong>on</strong> and supervisi<strong>on</strong> to support teach<strong>in</strong>g andlearn<strong>in</strong>g qualityResearch <strong>on</strong> teach<strong>in</strong>g quality also needs complementary research <strong>on</strong> teacher educati<strong>on</strong> (both <strong>in</strong>-serviceand pre-service) and supervisi<strong>on</strong>. This <str<strong>on</strong>g>review</str<strong>on</strong>g> has shown that <str<strong>on</strong>g>the</str<strong>on</strong>g> resp<strong>on</strong>se to poor-quality schoolteach<strong>in</strong>g has <str<strong>on</strong>g>of</str<strong>on</strong>g>ten been to <strong>in</strong>crease <strong>in</strong>-service tra<strong>in</strong><strong>in</strong>g and qualificati<strong>on</strong> upgrad<strong>in</strong>g. On <str<strong>on</strong>g>the</str<strong>on</strong>g> whole,however, <str<strong>on</strong>g>the</str<strong>on</strong>g>re is little available research evidence to suggest that this has helped improve teach<strong>in</strong>gquality, o<str<strong>on</strong>g>the</str<strong>on</strong>g>r than teachers say<strong>in</strong>g that it has. Given that <str<strong>on</strong>g>the</str<strong>on</strong>g>re has also been widespread criticism <str<strong>on</strong>g>of</str<strong>on</strong>g>teacher educati<strong>on</strong>, more detailed research is needed to establish what goes <strong>on</strong> <strong>in</strong> teacher educati<strong>on</strong><strong>in</strong>stituti<strong>on</strong>s and <strong>in</strong> <strong>in</strong>-service tra<strong>in</strong><strong>in</strong>g and school <strong>in</strong>specti<strong>on</strong> and supervisi<strong>on</strong> that helps or h<strong>in</strong>dersimprovements <strong>in</strong> teach<strong>in</strong>g quality.What happens <strong>in</strong> distance teacher educati<strong>on</strong>? How does it compare with face-to-face teachereducati<strong>on</strong>? How do NCE and PGDE preparati<strong>on</strong>s compare? The Grade II teach<strong>in</strong>g qualificati<strong>on</strong> has beensaid by some to have been a better gauge <str<strong>on</strong>g>of</str<strong>on</strong>g> teach<strong>in</strong>g competence than <str<strong>on</strong>g>the</str<strong>on</strong>g> current NCE; if so, whatwere <str<strong>on</strong>g>the</str<strong>on</strong>g> specific features <str<strong>on</strong>g>of</str<strong>on</strong>g> that qualificati<strong>on</strong> that helped prepare teachers better for <str<strong>on</strong>g>the</str<strong>on</strong>g> classroom?What are teachers do<strong>in</strong>g <strong>in</strong> <str<strong>on</strong>g>the</str<strong>on</strong>g> classroom that dem<strong>on</strong>strates <str<strong>on</strong>g>the</str<strong>on</strong>g> effectiveness or not <str<strong>on</strong>g>of</str<strong>on</strong>g> particular types<str<strong>on</strong>g>of</str<strong>on</strong>g> teacher educati<strong>on</strong>?Studies are needed that track tra<strong>in</strong>ee teachers through college, teach<strong>in</strong>g practice, and <str<strong>on</strong>g>the</str<strong>on</strong>g>n <strong>in</strong>to schoolas newly qualified teachers. To what extent are <str<strong>on</strong>g>the</str<strong>on</strong>g> colleges/universities prepar<strong>in</strong>g tra<strong>in</strong>ees for <str<strong>on</strong>g>the</str<strong>on</strong>g>realities <str<strong>on</strong>g>of</str<strong>on</strong>g> <str<strong>on</strong>g>the</str<strong>on</strong>g> classroom and school life? To what extent and <strong>in</strong> what ways do <str<strong>on</strong>g>the</str<strong>on</strong>g>y help studentsacquire subject knowledge? What are <str<strong>on</strong>g>the</str<strong>on</strong>g> students’ learn<strong>in</strong>g experiences and difficulties <strong>in</strong>college/university? How do <str<strong>on</strong>g>the</str<strong>on</strong>g> teacher educati<strong>on</strong> <strong>in</strong>stituti<strong>on</strong>s help students to adapt to schoolsafterwards? What type <str<strong>on</strong>g>of</str<strong>on</strong>g> support is given at each stage by <str<strong>on</strong>g>the</str<strong>on</strong>g> college/university and/or school andhow could it be improved? What k<strong>in</strong>d <str<strong>on</strong>g>of</str<strong>on</strong>g> supervisi<strong>on</strong>/support is given variously by o<str<strong>on</strong>g>the</str<strong>on</strong>g>r school staff,head teachers, local government school supervisors, and o<str<strong>on</strong>g>the</str<strong>on</strong>g>r state or federal school <strong>in</strong>spectors? Howcould it be improved?What k<strong>in</strong>ds <str<strong>on</strong>g>of</str<strong>on</strong>g> ‘good practice’ exist <strong>in</strong> terms <str<strong>on</strong>g>of</str<strong>on</strong>g> good <strong>in</strong>tra-school and <strong>in</strong>ter-school support (e.g. <strong>in</strong>clusters, mentor<strong>in</strong>g programmes, etc.) for teachers by o<str<strong>on</strong>g>the</str<strong>on</strong>g>r teachers or <str<strong>on</strong>g>the</str<strong>on</strong>g> head teacher? Whatfeatures <str<strong>on</strong>g>of</str<strong>on</strong>g> such programmes have a positive effect <strong>on</strong> teach<strong>in</strong>g quality?Research suggests that teachers are unaware <str<strong>on</strong>g>of</str<strong>on</strong>g> and/or unwill<strong>in</strong>g to admit to <str<strong>on</strong>g>the</str<strong>on</strong>g>ir own part, and that <str<strong>on</strong>g>of</str<strong>on</strong>g><str<strong>on</strong>g>the</str<strong>on</strong>g> school more generally, <strong>in</strong> pupil/student failure to learn. Positive reports <strong>on</strong> earlier acti<strong>on</strong>-researchprojects <strong>in</strong> a number <str<strong>on</strong>g>of</str<strong>on</strong>g> states (Adekola 2007) suggest that acti<strong>on</strong> research might be a productivemethodology to encourage teachers (and schools) to reflect more critically <strong>on</strong> <str<strong>on</strong>g>the</str<strong>on</strong>g>ir practices, anddevelop school quality improvement from with<strong>in</strong>.The research evidence <strong>in</strong>dicates low levels <str<strong>on</strong>g>of</str<strong>on</strong>g> teacher pr<str<strong>on</strong>g>of</str<strong>on</strong>g>essi<strong>on</strong>alism <strong>on</strong> <str<strong>on</strong>g>the</str<strong>on</strong>g> part <str<strong>on</strong>g>of</str<strong>on</strong>g> some teachers (e.g.absenteeism, unsancti<strong>on</strong>ed or unregulated corporal punishment, etc.). What are <str<strong>on</strong>g>the</str<strong>on</strong>g> discipl<strong>in</strong>aryprocedures and o<str<strong>on</strong>g>the</str<strong>on</strong>g>r practices that are help<strong>in</strong>g to improve levels <str<strong>on</strong>g>of</str<strong>on</strong>g> teacher pr<str<strong>on</strong>g>of</str<strong>on</strong>g>essi<strong>on</strong>alism? What roleare head teachers, <str<strong>on</strong>g>the</str<strong>on</strong>g> LGEA and/or state <str<strong>on</strong>g>of</str<strong>on</strong>g>ficials play<strong>in</strong>g <strong>in</strong> this? What roles do <str<strong>on</strong>g>the</str<strong>on</strong>g> TRCN, TIP and TDCplay and how do <str<strong>on</strong>g>the</str<strong>on</strong>g>y <strong>in</strong>teract with SUBEBs and LGEAs? How are PTAs, SBMCs and o<str<strong>on</strong>g>the</str<strong>on</strong>g>r communityorganisati<strong>on</strong>s <strong>in</strong>volved <strong>in</strong> improv<strong>in</strong>g teacher pr<str<strong>on</strong>g>of</str<strong>on</strong>g>essi<strong>on</strong>alism? What are <str<strong>on</strong>g>the</str<strong>on</strong>g> c<strong>on</strong>diti<strong>on</strong>s that supporthigher levels <str<strong>on</strong>g>of</str<strong>on</strong>g> teacher pr<str<strong>on</strong>g>of</str<strong>on</strong>g>essi<strong>on</strong>alism?Gaps <strong>in</strong> research: school quality – o<str<strong>on</strong>g>the</str<strong>on</strong>g>r issuesWhat is <str<strong>on</strong>g>the</str<strong>on</strong>g> relati<strong>on</strong>ship between school choice and school quality? Research <strong>in</strong>dicates that parents are<strong>in</strong>creas<strong>in</strong>gly choos<strong>in</strong>g to send <str<strong>on</strong>g>the</str<strong>on</strong>g>ir children to private <strong>in</strong>stituti<strong>on</strong>s, especially <strong>in</strong> urban areas, because<str<strong>on</strong>g>the</str<strong>on</strong>g>se schools are perceived to be better quality. Research is needed to look at how this plays out <strong>in</strong>particular community c<strong>on</strong>texts. Where <str<strong>on</strong>g>the</str<strong>on</strong>g>re are multiple different educati<strong>on</strong> providers available <strong>in</strong> <strong>on</strong>eEDOREN – Educati<strong>on</strong> Data, Research and Evaluati<strong>on</strong> <strong>in</strong> Nigeria 160
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