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Review <strong>of</strong> <strong>the</strong> <strong>literature</strong> on basic education in Nigeriaposition <strong>of</strong> boys schooling is for girls while business and acquisition <strong>of</strong> material wealth is for ‘real men’(Nworgu 2011, cited in UNICEF/UIS 2012).8.6.2 AlmajiraiAn exception to <strong>the</strong> dearth <strong>of</strong> <strong>literature</strong> on boys and education is <strong>the</strong> topic <strong>of</strong> almajirai, a product <strong>of</strong> <strong>the</strong>over-enrolment <strong>of</strong> young boys in Islamic schools that are unable to provide for <strong>the</strong>m, which results in<strong>the</strong>ir spending more time begging than studying (Usman 2008). There are currently an estimated 9.5million almajirai in Nigeria, according to <strong>the</strong> Executive Secretary <strong>of</strong> UBEC (Umejei 2011), with 8.5 millionbeing in <strong>the</strong> north (Hoechner 2011).A few, very small-scale qualitative studies have explored <strong>the</strong> almajirai situation. A study in Kano(Hoechner 2011) considers some <strong>of</strong> <strong>the</strong> fundamental inequalities that propel young boys into analmajirai existence, namely <strong>the</strong> poor quality <strong>of</strong> public schooling (especially in rural areas), low returns oneducation in terms <strong>of</strong> employment, <strong>the</strong> erosion <strong>of</strong> <strong>the</strong> rural economy and modern schooling’s historicalassociation with Christianity (FME 2008, cited in Hoechner 2011), all <strong>of</strong> which encourage seasonal orpermanent migration to cities. Hoechner draws on interviews with teachers in a number <strong>of</strong> rural andurban schools and fa<strong>the</strong>rs <strong>of</strong> almajirai, as well as on observations, group conversations and casualinteractions with boys (mainly 10–15-year-olds) in two Qur’anic schools. She argues that parents aremaking strategic decisions both on account <strong>of</strong> <strong>the</strong> high regard for Qur’anic learning but also in <strong>the</strong> beliefthat a degree <strong>of</strong> hardship leads to moral development. Importantly, she points out that in <strong>the</strong> ruralschools, almajirai generally help <strong>the</strong> mallam with farm labour whereas in urban areas <strong>the</strong> degree <strong>of</strong>begging varies, depending on <strong>the</strong> availability <strong>of</strong> alternative paid employment (e.g. working as a homehelp, load carrying or petty trading) and <strong>the</strong> degree to which <strong>the</strong> boys are expected to contribute to <strong>the</strong>mallam’s livelihood.Two main factors in <strong>the</strong> almajirai experience were identified in Hoechner’s study (ibid.). The first was<strong>the</strong> close contact many had with Muslim families who sent <strong>the</strong>ir children to Islamiyya or secular schools;<strong>the</strong>y <strong>of</strong>ten performed errands for <strong>the</strong>m while <strong>the</strong> family’s children were away at school or on account <strong>of</strong><strong>the</strong> women being in purdah. The second factor was <strong>the</strong> critical or hostile attitudes <strong>the</strong> boys encounteredin <strong>the</strong> city, which <strong>the</strong>y endeavoured to rise above by constructing a strong moral identity. Althoughparents felt that access to materials o<strong>the</strong>r than <strong>the</strong> Qur’an distracts boys from learning <strong>the</strong> Qur’anproperly, <strong>the</strong> boys <strong>the</strong>mselves disagreed, wanting access to o<strong>the</strong>r Islamic texts available to <strong>the</strong> childrenin <strong>the</strong> Islamiyya schools and approving <strong>of</strong> ‘modern’ education more generally as <strong>the</strong>y believed it wouldlead to economic success. Many felt <strong>the</strong>y would gain access to modern education later, while those whohad been withdrawn from government schools regretted <strong>the</strong>ir withdrawal.Recent initiatives with almajiraiFGN has been keen to address <strong>the</strong> almajirai situation, particularly itinerancy and begging, predominantlythrough IQTE but also by introducing more Islamic disciplines into conventional government schools(UBEC 2010). One <strong>of</strong> <strong>the</strong> three priority areas for <strong>the</strong> 14% <strong>of</strong> <strong>the</strong> Consolidated Revenue Fund available tostates to address ‘educational imbalance’ is <strong>the</strong> National Almajirai Programme (UBEC 2012b).The government has already established model almajirai schools, including boarding schools, across 25states, as well as developing curriculum materials and working with <strong>the</strong> NCCE to develop an NCEcurriculum in Almajiri Education Studies in order to train specialist teachers (ibid.). At <strong>the</strong> time <strong>of</strong>writing, 55 <strong>of</strong> <strong>the</strong> planned 89 model schools had been completed and UBEC expressed <strong>the</strong> hope thatstates would take over <strong>the</strong> maintenance <strong>of</strong> <strong>the</strong> schools and expand <strong>the</strong> programme (UBEC 2013). At <strong>the</strong>same time, concerns were expressed about <strong>the</strong> programme’s sustainability (ibid.).Usman’s (2008) small-scale phenomenological study highlighted some <strong>of</strong> <strong>the</strong> challenges in KadunaState’s initiatives to improve <strong>the</strong> educational participation <strong>of</strong> almajirai. The ‘free lunch’ incentivesucceeded in encouraging partial attendance until just after <strong>the</strong> meal, but <strong>the</strong> boys considered <strong>the</strong> foodEDOREN – Education Data, Research and Evaluation in Nigeria 95
Review <strong>of</strong> <strong>the</strong> <strong>literature</strong> on basic education in Nigeriaboth ‘foreign’ and insufficient so left school to beg for <strong>the</strong> next meal. A lack <strong>of</strong> instructional supervisionmeant <strong>the</strong> boys could easily slip away. Free furniture and materials such as uniforms and textbooks wasano<strong>the</strong>r strategy. Yet <strong>the</strong>y were considered ‘alien’ and, according to one government <strong>of</strong>ficer, forced allbut 50 children in one school to run away, which one teacher interpreted as a reaction to <strong>the</strong>‘westernisation’ <strong>of</strong> Qur’anic schools.Visits by interested boys from Qur’anic schools to mainstream government schools – ano<strong>the</strong>r strategy –were hampered by bullying and negative attitudes from peers from o<strong>the</strong>r ethnic groups on account <strong>of</strong><strong>the</strong>ir ‘unkempt appearance, skin diseases and general lack <strong>of</strong> hygiene’ (Aw<strong>of</strong>eso et al. 2002, cited inUsman 2008).8.7 Beyond gender parityThe external evaluation <strong>of</strong> UNICEF’s GEP II highlights <strong>the</strong> need to move beyond ‘gender parity’ – whichtypifies most development efforts regarding girls’ education in Nigeria – toward ‘gender equality’.With most efforts have focused on closing <strong>the</strong> primary school enrolment gap between girls and boys,insufficient attention has been paid to factors contributing to or constraining retention andachievement, <strong>the</strong> quality and relevance <strong>of</strong> education, or <strong>the</strong> gendered aspects <strong>of</strong> <strong>the</strong> same (UNICEF2012: xiii).The report goes on to state:There is need to look at <strong>the</strong> more complex processes that take place within schools and communities, thatcontribute to or constrain <strong>the</strong> health, safety, personal development, wellbeing and relevant learning <strong>of</strong> girls,and boys (ibid.: xiii).Such a change essentially means focusing on <strong>the</strong> ‘gender regimes’ <strong>of</strong> schools (Kessler et al. 1985),looking at <strong>the</strong> taken-for-granted rules and processes that both inscribe and produce gender relations.These gender regimes are located within <strong>the</strong> wider ‘gender order’ (Connell 1987) <strong>of</strong> society, whichincludes o<strong>the</strong>r social institutions such as <strong>the</strong> family, community, religion and government. In Nigeriansociety, according to <strong>the</strong> Federal Ministry <strong>of</strong> Women’s Affairs and Youth Development in 2000, ‘<strong>the</strong>synchronized effect <strong>of</strong> traditional, colonial and religious patriarchy produces deeply entrenched genderstratification’ (Para-Mallam 2010: 249).The GEP II evaluation also highlighted <strong>the</strong> fact that ‘<strong>the</strong> gender parity approach does not sufficientlyengage boys and men in confronting norms and attitudes that perpetuate inequality’ (UNICEF 2012: xiii).In this respect, <strong>the</strong>re are perhaps lessons that can be learned from <strong>the</strong> internationally renownedConscientizing Male Adolescents (CMA) programme (see Box 8.3), which has been running for a number<strong>of</strong> years in Cross River State, and later Akwa Ibom, in <strong>the</strong> South East (Girard 2003). Although <strong>the</strong>programme involves older adolescent males, <strong>the</strong> notion <strong>of</strong> engaging males in discussions and activitiesrelated to gender and power relations is one way <strong>of</strong> helping to address <strong>the</strong> issue.Box 8.3 Conscientizing Male Adolescents – a programme in South East NigeriaInitiated in 1995 in Calabar, Cross River State, by respected journalist Eddie Madunagu, this long-termprogramme focuses on sexism and developing adolescent males’ critical thinking. The programmewas initially designed to complement <strong>the</strong> Girls’ Power Initiative (GPI; see www.gpinigeria.org) fromwhich it drew on initially, but has subsequently evolved in its own right. As Madunagu explained:… he felt concern for <strong>the</strong> GPI girls, who, with all <strong>the</strong>ir newly acquired knowledge, would have to face‘uneducated’ boys and patriarchal families. ‘There is no point <strong>of</strong>fering prayers and supplications tosomeone who is ignorant . . . Women cannot achieve liberation by supplication.’ Madunagu was alsothinking <strong>of</strong> <strong>the</strong> boys’ own development and growth. He explains, ‘It is also necessary to let boys knowthat ultimately, men cannot win and cannot be truly happy and liberated as long as <strong>the</strong>y hold down aEDOREN – Education Data, Research and Evaluation in Nigeria 96
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