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Review <strong>of</strong> <strong>the</strong> <strong>literature</strong> on basic education in Nigeria9.3.3 Household choresHousehold chores constitute ano<strong>the</strong>r area <strong>of</strong> children’s work that can impact heavily on schoolpunctuality and attendance (Dunne et al. 2013; UNICEF 2012). The 2011 survey (NBS 2013) also showedthat household chores are an important part <strong>of</strong> life for all children. Although figures were negligible forchildren completing over 28 hours per week <strong>of</strong> household chores, <strong>the</strong>y were high for under 28 hours –at around 60% <strong>of</strong> <strong>the</strong> younger age bracket and just over 80% for <strong>the</strong> older age bracket – affecting girlsmore than boys and those in urban areas slightly more than in rural areas irrespective <strong>of</strong> wealth.However, as we do not know whe<strong>the</strong>r this means children do chores for one or 27 hours per week,again it is hard from <strong>the</strong>se statistics to gauge <strong>the</strong> possible impact on schooling. On <strong>the</strong> o<strong>the</strong>r hand, <strong>the</strong>2010 NEDS (NPC and RTI International 2011) looked at explanations for absenteeism from primaryschool <strong>the</strong> week prior to <strong>the</strong> interview and found that wealth was significant; <strong>the</strong> poorer <strong>the</strong> household,<strong>the</strong> higher <strong>the</strong> percentage <strong>of</strong> children absent from school because <strong>the</strong>y had to complete domestic work.Domestic work was also reported to have caused absenteeism more in rural areas (11.8%) than in urbanareas (6.5%) and to have caused girls to be absent (12.8%) much more than boys (8.8%). The qualitativedata confirm <strong>the</strong> fact that girls are generally more burdened by household chores, especially since girlssometimes have to stay at home to look after newly born and younger siblings while <strong>the</strong> mo<strong>the</strong>r goesout to work and are also more likely to have to look after sick relatives (Robson 2004; British Council2012; UNICEF 2012; Bakari 2013; Dunne et al. 2013).Interestingly, however, <strong>the</strong> girls surveyed in <strong>the</strong> TEGINT study did not specifically identify householdchores as one <strong>of</strong> <strong>the</strong> three main barriers to achieving <strong>the</strong>ir desired educational level (ActionAid 2011);<strong>the</strong>y were poverty, early marriage and ill health (although <strong>the</strong> need to undertake domestic tasks mightwell have been included in <strong>the</strong> broad band <strong>of</strong> poverty).9.3.4 Street and trafficked childrenStreet children, who are predominantly boys, are a particularly important and vulnerable category <strong>of</strong>working children, which is increasing in number, especially in urban areas (Ikechebelu et al. 2008;Aransiola et al. 2009). They also constitute a large segment <strong>of</strong> <strong>the</strong> estimated 17.5 million OVCs inNigeria, which also includes an estimated 40% <strong>of</strong> children under 17 who have been trafficked (BUCGHD2009). Although both girls and boys are trafficked – generally from rural to urban areas – girls are said tobe more vulnerable to trafficking (Jones et al. 2012); gender patterns have been identified that suggestfemales are <strong>of</strong>ten trafficked into domestic service, street trading and sexual exploitation whereas malesare engaged in a greater range <strong>of</strong> activities, including street trading, agriculture, mining, petty crime and<strong>the</strong> drug trade (Aronowicz 2006, cited in Jones et al. 2012).Street children are usually behind in <strong>the</strong> acquisition <strong>of</strong> basic literacy skills (Lloyd and Hewett 2003; WorldBank 2006), restricted in educational participation, and are particularly vulnerable to ill health and abuse(Aransiola et al. 2009). In nor<strong>the</strong>rn Nigeria a large proportion <strong>of</strong> male street children are almajirai,whom various states are trying to incorporate into <strong>the</strong> formal school system (see also Section 2.5 andSection 8.6.2).In <strong>the</strong> national labour survey (FOS/ILO, 2001) around 5,500 street children were surveyed, 95% <strong>of</strong> whomwere male. The most common occupation was load carrying (over a third), followed by hawking and<strong>the</strong>n bus conducting. Over 90% <strong>of</strong> <strong>the</strong> children were out <strong>of</strong> school. Hawking predominated among <strong>the</strong>female respondents. In addition to restricting educational participation, street hawking exposes <strong>the</strong>children – especially girls – to sexual harassment and violence (Sada et al. 2005; UNICEF 2012). Anexploratory study <strong>of</strong> street hawking in Anambra State (in <strong>the</strong> South East) (Ikechebelu et al. 2008) foundthat about 70% <strong>of</strong> female street hawkers (mean age 13) had been sexually abused while hawking,including almost a quarter who had been raped or coerced into sexual activity in exchange for gifts orfood. Aransiola et al.’s (2009) study <strong>of</strong> 1,500 street children across three cities also found police <strong>of</strong>feringprotection in exchange for sexual favours from girls or for bribes from boys.EDOREN – Education Data, Research and Evaluation in Nigeria 105
Review <strong>of</strong> <strong>the</strong> <strong>literature</strong> on basic education in Nigeria9.4 Initiatives to reduce school costsThere have been various initiatives to reduce school costs in order to increase access to school; <strong>the</strong>seinitiatives have <strong>of</strong>ten been donor-driven, aimed at increasing girls’ access to schooling in particular andhave been adjudged to have increased enrolments, although it is not known whe<strong>the</strong>r beneficiaries havepersisted in school. Examples include conditional cash transfers (UNICEF 2012). Free school uniform forPrimary 1 girls had been provided in Adamawa State for <strong>the</strong> last few years, and following its reportedimpact <strong>the</strong> system is being extended to all pupils in all primary grades (Dunne et al. 2013). At <strong>the</strong> locallevel too SBMC initiatives and/or women’s associations in donor-supported nor<strong>the</strong>rn states havevariously raised money or been given school grants that <strong>the</strong>y have used to provide uniforms,instructional materials, sanitary pads and even bicycles to girls and/or to give financial support to poorfamilies (Adediran 2010; Coinco 2012; Little and Lewis 2012; Pinnock 2012), including specifically tochildren <strong>of</strong> families <strong>of</strong> minority ethnic origin (Pinnock 2012).9.5 HealthChild ill health, which is <strong>of</strong>ten related to poverty, poor water and sanitation and/or conditions <strong>of</strong> childlabour, impacts heavily on schooling and has been identified as a major impediment to Nigeria achievingUBE (UNDP Nigeria 2010). As <strong>the</strong> 2010 NEDS succinctly summarised:School-age children suffer from nutritional problems that may affect <strong>the</strong>ir physical and cognitivedevelopment, as well as <strong>the</strong>ir capacity to attend school, stay in school, and learn while attending school.Previous research has found correlations between nutrition and school enrolment/attendance, performancein school, age-<strong>of</strong>-entry, absenteeism, repetition, and dropout (NPC and RTI International 2011: 37–38).The survey showed many children aged 4–10 were malnourished, again considerably more in rural andnor<strong>the</strong>rn regions, and speculated that <strong>the</strong> discontinuation <strong>of</strong> <strong>the</strong> Home Grown School Feedingprogramme in <strong>the</strong> majority <strong>of</strong> states may have helped discourage additional enrolment after 2007 (ibid.:4). Conversely, <strong>the</strong> school-feeding programme in Kano State (1999–2003) when all school-age childrenwere provided with a midday meal reportedly led to an expansion <strong>of</strong> school enrolment (UBEC 2012a).Hunger has been identified as a major problem, sometimes resulting in pupil latecoming andabsenteeism as <strong>the</strong>y go in search <strong>of</strong> food, and as having a detrimental effect on concentration andlearning (UNICEF 2009a; ActionAid 2011; UNICEF 2012; Dunne et al. 2013).Ill health was identified as <strong>the</strong> most important constraint to schooling by just under a quarter <strong>of</strong> <strong>the</strong>7,000 sampled primary school and JSS students in <strong>the</strong> 2004 ESA (FME 2005). Similarly, in <strong>the</strong> 2010 NEDS,ill health was by far <strong>the</strong> most commonly cited reason for missing school at primary level, given by over athird <strong>of</strong> respondents nationally and over half in <strong>the</strong> South West, although interestingly <strong>the</strong> percentageincreased with household wealth. In <strong>the</strong> TEGINT study on girls’ education in eight states in Nigeria,illness was also identified as a major obstacle to schooling among 44% <strong>of</strong> respondents, although thispercentage ranged widely across <strong>the</strong> states (ActionAid 2011). Importantly, however, <strong>the</strong> majority <strong>of</strong>adults in leadership positions in this study did not recognise health issues as a barrier to girls’participation in school (ibid.). In contrast, over half <strong>the</strong> teachers surveyed in <strong>the</strong> CFS evaluationrecognised that inadequate nutrition prevented pupils from learning as much as <strong>the</strong>y could, althoughmost schools had had to discontinue <strong>the</strong>ir school-feeding programmes because <strong>of</strong> rising food costs(UNICEF 2009a).9.5.1 Water and sanitationPoor water and sanitation is considered to be at <strong>the</strong> root <strong>of</strong> much child ill health (UNDP Nigeria 2010).The 2010 Nigeria Malaria Indicator Survey found that almost a third <strong>of</strong> households still have no toiletfacility and almost a fifth have only an open pit latrine (NPC, National Malaria Control Programme(NMCP) and ICF International 2012). The three most important health constraints on pupil and teacherEDOREN – Education Data, Research and Evaluation in Nigeria 106
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