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Review <strong>of</strong> <strong>the</strong> <strong>literature</strong> on basic education in Nigeriaadministered to a sample <strong>of</strong> Primary 3 pupils in Bauchi and Sokoto states. This assessment found that<strong>the</strong> vast majority <strong>of</strong> Primary 2 and 3 pupils have not mastered any foundational reading skills in ei<strong>the</strong>rEnglish or Hausa in ei<strong>the</strong>r government or IQTE schools. The foundational skills measured in <strong>the</strong>assessment were letter-sound identification, non-word reading, oral reading fluency, readingcomprehension, and listening comprehension. More specific findings were:Over 50% scored zero on subtasks; 80 to 90% scored zero for some grades and skills;Pupils in Bauchi performed better than those in Sokoto;Pupils in IQTE schools performed better on average than pupils in government schools, especially inHausa;There was no significant difference in performance between girls and boys in both grades in <strong>the</strong>government schools, although <strong>the</strong>re was a significant gender difference in Bauchi IQTE schools,especially at Stage 2; andPupils’ scores increased slightly from grade to grade but <strong>the</strong> additional year <strong>of</strong> schooling did notproduce meaningful gains (USAID 2013a).Pupils performed best on <strong>the</strong> task <strong>of</strong> having a text read to <strong>the</strong>m in Hausa (ibid.), perhaps suggesting <strong>the</strong>need to include more oracy in literacy activities (see also Section 4.3).The 2013 USAID EGMA results were similarly poor, while again <strong>the</strong> pupils in IQTE schools fared slightlybetter. Most pupils scored zero in <strong>the</strong> subtasks, which asked pupils to identify numbers, do simpleaddition and subtractions, discriminate between quantities, complete missing numbers in a sequence,and solve ma<strong>the</strong>matical problems orally (word problems). The pupils performed much better on <strong>the</strong>contextualised orally given word problems, suggesting children have <strong>the</strong> capacity to do better if teachersmake <strong>the</strong> linkages between real-life contexts and more abstract concepts (USAID 2013 a and b).Overall, <strong>the</strong> evidence from <strong>the</strong> <strong>literature</strong> is consistent in concluding that learning outcomes are weak inboth literacy and numeracy but that <strong>the</strong>y are weaker in literacy, even when literacy is assessed in alanguage o<strong>the</strong>r than English. In contrast, pupils’ oral skills in <strong>the</strong>ir mo<strong>the</strong>r tongue and/or <strong>the</strong> language <strong>of</strong><strong>the</strong> immediate environment fared better, and this points perhaps to <strong>the</strong> need to incorporate more oralwork into both literacy and numeracy teaching.5.4 Impact on labour market outcomesIn general, <strong>the</strong> economic benefit to individuals from education in most <strong>of</strong> SSA is low for primary andsecondary school but rises for tertiary education (Schultz 2004; Teal 2010). This is true in Nigeria. Thereis a relatively limited body <strong>of</strong> <strong>literature</strong> on <strong>the</strong> impact <strong>of</strong> education on earnings in Nigeria, based on astandard economic and statistical methodology used in countries around <strong>the</strong> world. These papers makeuse <strong>of</strong> national household survey data that convey detailed information about thousands <strong>of</strong> individuals,which allow <strong>the</strong>se correlations to be identified. All <strong>of</strong> <strong>the</strong>se papers are based on several years <strong>of</strong> <strong>the</strong>NDHS from between 1996 and 2008. This is one <strong>of</strong> <strong>the</strong> major sample surveys carried out in Nigeria, andresembles <strong>the</strong> World Bank’s Living Standards Measurement Survey in terms <strong>of</strong> variable coverage. Itcontains detailed demographic information on individuals, including on <strong>the</strong>ir earnings, occupation,schooling and household characteristics.Oyelere (2011) estimates <strong>the</strong> income gains to individuals from schooling based on data from 2005. Herfindings are that <strong>the</strong> gains are lowest for primary and secondary education (4% higher earnings per year<strong>of</strong> schooling) and much higher for tertiary (16% higher earnings per year <strong>of</strong> schooling). This estimate isbased on self-reported income so may be inaccurate, but does set out to cover both formal employmentand informal self-employment activities. The numbers <strong>of</strong> people who enjoy <strong>the</strong> higher gains fromtertiary education are relatively small – only 7.8% <strong>of</strong> <strong>the</strong> population aged 15 and over have some postsecondaryeducation (NPC and RTI International 2011). Oyelere also compares how <strong>the</strong> gains haveEDOREN – Education Data, Research and Evaluation in Nigeria 51
Review <strong>of</strong> <strong>the</strong> <strong>literature</strong> on basic education in Nigeriachanged before and after <strong>the</strong> end <strong>of</strong> military rule in 1999, finding that <strong>the</strong> gains have increased since <strong>the</strong>return <strong>of</strong> democracy. She argues that improvements in economic policy have created <strong>the</strong> opportunitiesfor higher earnings to be attained through schooling. Aminu (2010) finds that gains from schooling at alllevels fell for men between 1998 and 2008 but increased for women, although this is not explained.Aminu (2010) also shows how higher levels <strong>of</strong> schooling provide access to higher paid public sector jobs,but differences in education are less important for earnings once a public sector job has been obtained.Several o<strong>the</strong>r studies looking at data from 1999 and earlier corroborate <strong>the</strong> finding that <strong>the</strong>re werepositive but small gains from education (e.g. Aromolaran 2002; Ogwumike et al. 2006).5.4.1 Impacts on sub-populationsOverall, <strong>the</strong>re is very little evidence about how education affects <strong>the</strong> earnings <strong>of</strong> different subpopulations– for example, by gender or location. The gains from schooling by gender differ bypublic/private sector but are on average slightly higher for females (who do, though, have lower wageson average) (Aminu 2010). Aminu (2010) and Aromolaran (2004) also look at <strong>the</strong> impact <strong>of</strong> schooling onfemale labour market participation, and find that <strong>the</strong>re are similarly positive effects, although <strong>the</strong>y aremuch stronger at tertiary level and <strong>the</strong> impact <strong>of</strong> primary and secondary schooling is more muted. Thesepapers do not allow for an estimation <strong>of</strong> <strong>the</strong> differences in gains to schooling by state, although Oyelere(2010) estimates gains from education to be higher in urban than in rural areas.There are also some studies that look at <strong>the</strong> impact <strong>of</strong> schooling on agricultural productivity in variousspecific locations with specific crops. Several, but not all, <strong>of</strong> <strong>the</strong>se papers find a positive relationshipbetween schooling and productivity, which <strong>the</strong> authors attribute to better educated farmers being morelikely to adopt more progressive techniques and technologies (Liverpool-Tasie et al. 2011).5.5 Impact on fertility and child healthEducation has been shown in various countries to reduce <strong>the</strong> number <strong>of</strong> children that women have.Possible explanations for this have included <strong>the</strong> suggestion that schooling can increase <strong>the</strong> opportunitycost <strong>of</strong> child-bearing (by giving women more opportunities outside <strong>the</strong> home), improve health and thusreduce child mortality rates, and increase female autonomy and bargaining power or access tocontraception (Schultz 1998).5.5.1 FertilityThe 2008 NDHS data show that women in Nigeria with more education have fewer children on average(from a fertility rate <strong>of</strong> 7.3 for those with no education to 2.9 for those with more than secondary) (NPCand ICF Macro 2009). Women with more education also tend to be older at <strong>the</strong>ir first birth and are lesslikely to become pregnant while still a teenager. Both educated men and educated women are morelikely to know about modern and traditional methods <strong>of</strong> contraception, and to have been exposed t<strong>of</strong>amily planning messages via radio, television or newspapers.These simple correlations are backed up by a statistical analysis that controls for o<strong>the</strong>r important factorssuch as income and location. Osili and Long (2008) investigated statistically <strong>the</strong> relationship betweenfemale schooling and fertility using <strong>the</strong> 1999 NDHS data. They estimated that an additional year <strong>of</strong>education is causally associated with a reduction in births <strong>of</strong> 0.26 (<strong>the</strong>y use <strong>the</strong> quasi-randomintroduction <strong>of</strong> free universal primary education as an ‘instrument’ to attribute causality). Wusu (2012)found similar results looking at <strong>the</strong> 2003 and 2008 NDHS datasets. His analysis showed that femaleeducation both reduces actual children born and female preferences about ideal family size. Ano<strong>the</strong>rstudy with similar findings is Akpotu’s (2008), which looked at independent data collected in sou<strong>the</strong>rnNigeria.EDOREN – Education Data, Research and Evaluation in Nigeria 52
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