Review <str<strong>on</strong>g>of</str<strong>on</strong>g> <str<strong>on</strong>g>the</str<strong>on</strong>g> <str<strong>on</strong>g>literature</str<strong>on</strong>g> <strong>on</strong> <strong>basic</strong> educati<strong>on</strong> <strong>in</strong> NigeriaFear <str<strong>on</strong>g>of</str<strong>on</strong>g> <str<strong>on</strong>g>the</str<strong>on</strong>g> lawIn some states (e.g. Niger) it is aga<strong>in</strong>st <str<strong>on</strong>g>the</str<strong>on</strong>g> law to withdraw a girl from school for marriage. Ra<str<strong>on</strong>g>the</str<strong>on</strong>g>r thanrisk a f<strong>in</strong>e or impris<strong>on</strong>ment for withdrawal, some parents/guardians prefer not to send <str<strong>on</strong>g>the</str<strong>on</strong>g>ir daughter toschool <strong>in</strong> <str<strong>on</strong>g>the</str<strong>on</strong>g> first place (Okojie 2008).8.3.2 School-related issuesDistance from schoolThis issue is especially pert<strong>in</strong>ent <strong>in</strong> some rural areas and particularly at JSS level as <str<strong>on</strong>g>the</str<strong>on</strong>g>re are fewerschools (Okojie 2008; Acti<strong>on</strong>Aid 2011; NPC and RTI Internati<strong>on</strong>al 2011; UNICEF 2012). For girls, <str<strong>on</strong>g>the</str<strong>on</strong>g>c<strong>on</strong>cerns about <str<strong>on</strong>g>the</str<strong>on</strong>g> distance to school may also be related to c<strong>on</strong>cern about <str<strong>on</strong>g>the</str<strong>on</strong>g>ir safety <strong>on</strong> <str<strong>on</strong>g>the</str<strong>on</strong>g> way toand from school (Ant<strong>on</strong>owicz et al. 2010; UNICEF 2012).Corporal punishmentWhile corporal punishment and fear <str<strong>on</strong>g>of</str<strong>on</strong>g> corporal punishment affect both girls and boys, girls <strong>in</strong> particularare affected by <str<strong>on</strong>g>the</str<strong>on</strong>g> shame <str<strong>on</strong>g>of</str<strong>on</strong>g> be<strong>in</strong>g beaten <strong>in</strong> public, which can result <strong>in</strong> absenteeism, withdrawal and/ordropout from school (Acti<strong>on</strong>Aid 2011; British Council 2012; Dunne et al. 2013).Water and sanitati<strong>on</strong>The provisi<strong>on</strong> <str<strong>on</strong>g>of</str<strong>on</strong>g> safe, clean gender-segregated toilets and clean water, which is also related to ill health(Acti<strong>on</strong>Aid 2011; Bakari 2013), is a c<strong>on</strong>cern. For example, <strong>in</strong> 2005 <strong>on</strong>ly 40% <str<strong>on</strong>g>of</str<strong>on</strong>g> schools had toilets(Theobald et al. 2007).School dutiesGender-stereotyped duties for staff and pupils and female subord<strong>in</strong>ati<strong>on</strong> <strong>in</strong> <str<strong>on</strong>g>the</str<strong>on</strong>g> prefect system areissues (Bakari 2013; Dunne et al. 2013), although it should be noted that Bakari’s study showed girls andboys shar<strong>in</strong>g most duties.Lack <str<strong>on</strong>g>of</str<strong>on</strong>g> female teachersThere is a lack <str<strong>on</strong>g>of</str<strong>on</strong>g> female teachers, especially <strong>in</strong> rural areas (Okojie 2008; Acti<strong>on</strong>Aid 2011; Okojie 2012;UNICEF 2012). In <strong>on</strong>e LGEA <strong>in</strong> Bauchi State, for example, 84% <str<strong>on</strong>g>of</str<strong>on</strong>g> primary schools have no femaleteachers at all (UNICEF 2012).Female teachers are sometimes seen as ‘role models’ for girls’ educati<strong>on</strong>al aspirati<strong>on</strong>s (Okojie 2008;USAID 2009; Acti<strong>on</strong>Aid 2011; Okojie 2012), but see <str<strong>on</strong>g>the</str<strong>on</strong>g> relevant sub-secti<strong>on</strong> <strong>in</strong> Secti<strong>on</strong> 8.5 for fur<str<strong>on</strong>g>the</str<strong>on</strong>g>rdiscussi<strong>on</strong> <str<strong>on</strong>g>of</str<strong>on</strong>g> <str<strong>on</strong>g>the</str<strong>on</strong>g> issue.Limited classroom participati<strong>on</strong>One classroom-based observati<strong>on</strong>al study <strong>in</strong> seven states found that boys are <strong>on</strong> average twice as likelyto be asked a questi<strong>on</strong> as girls (Hardman et al. 2008), although as o<str<strong>on</strong>g>the</str<strong>on</strong>g>r research <strong>in</strong> Africa (e.g. Dunne etal. 2005) has shown this may still mean that many boys as well as girls have no questi<strong>on</strong>s directed at<str<strong>on</strong>g>the</str<strong>on</strong>g>m.Gendered expectati<strong>on</strong>s and gender stereotyp<strong>in</strong>gThe gendered expectati<strong>on</strong>s <str<strong>on</strong>g>of</str<strong>on</strong>g> teachers and pupils (e.g. presum<strong>in</strong>g some girls to be passive and ‘shy’ andbetter at so-called ‘fem<strong>in</strong><strong>in</strong>e’ arts subjects ra<str<strong>on</strong>g>the</str<strong>on</strong>g>r than Maths and Science) perpetuate genderEDOREN – Educati<strong>on</strong> Data, Research and Evaluati<strong>on</strong> <strong>in</strong> Nigeria 87
Review <str<strong>on</strong>g>of</str<strong>on</strong>g> <str<strong>on</strong>g>the</str<strong>on</strong>g> <str<strong>on</strong>g>literature</str<strong>on</strong>g> <strong>on</strong> <strong>basic</strong> educati<strong>on</strong> <strong>in</strong> Nigeriastereotypes that can limit girls’ experiences and potential achievements (Para-Mallam 2010; Bakari2013; Dunne et al. 2013). Indeed, such stereotyp<strong>in</strong>g can also limit boys’ experiences (Dunne et al. 2013).Textbooks and curriculaThe gender stereotyp<strong>in</strong>g and underrepresentati<strong>on</strong> <str<strong>on</strong>g>of</str<strong>on</strong>g> females and female experiences and <str<strong>on</strong>g>the</str<strong>on</strong>g> use <str<strong>on</strong>g>of</str<strong>on</strong>g>gender-<strong>in</strong>sensitive language found <strong>in</strong> some textbooks sends powerful gender messages to pupils (Para-Mallam 2010; Samuel 2012; Bakari 2013).8.4 Gender violenceGender violence is a key c<strong>on</strong>cern that can ‘<strong>in</strong>hibit girls’ access to school<strong>in</strong>g, may result <strong>in</strong> poorperformance at school and deprives society <str<strong>on</strong>g>of</str<strong>on</strong>g> <str<strong>on</strong>g>the</str<strong>on</strong>g> full participati<strong>on</strong> <str<strong>on</strong>g>of</str<strong>on</strong>g> women <strong>in</strong> development’ (Osakue2006: 3). Although a serious issue, and <strong>on</strong>e that is prevalent <strong>in</strong> educati<strong>on</strong>al <strong>in</strong>stituti<strong>on</strong>s worldwide <strong>in</strong> <strong>on</strong>eform or ano<str<strong>on</strong>g>the</str<strong>on</strong>g>r (see Leach and Mitchell 2006), it is <str<strong>on</strong>g>of</str<strong>on</strong>g>ten not discussed, is underreported and/or denied(Adelabu 2005; FME 2007b; Acti<strong>on</strong>Aid 2011; Dunne et al. 2013).8.4.1 Understand<strong>in</strong>gs <str<strong>on</strong>g>of</str<strong>on</strong>g> gender violenceThe term ‘gender violence’ (or <str<strong>on</strong>g>the</str<strong>on</strong>g> more comm<strong>on</strong>ly used ‘gender-based violence’) is frequently used <strong>in</strong><str<strong>on</strong>g>the</str<strong>on</strong>g> narrow sense <str<strong>on</strong>g>of</str<strong>on</strong>g> violence by males aga<strong>in</strong>st females, and <str<strong>on</strong>g>of</str<strong>on</strong>g>ten with <str<strong>on</strong>g>the</str<strong>on</strong>g> emphasis <strong>on</strong> sexual violence.This is <str<strong>on</strong>g>the</str<strong>on</strong>g> understand<strong>in</strong>g <strong>in</strong> most <str<strong>on</strong>g>of</str<strong>on</strong>g> <str<strong>on</strong>g>the</str<strong>on</strong>g> studies <str<strong>on</strong>g>review</str<strong>on</strong>g>ed <strong>in</strong> this secti<strong>on</strong>. However, <str<strong>on</strong>g>the</str<strong>on</strong>g> term can also<strong>in</strong>clude issues such as corporal punishment, verbal abuse, bully<strong>in</strong>g and ‘teas<strong>in</strong>g’; fur<str<strong>on</strong>g>the</str<strong>on</strong>g>rmore, it can<strong>in</strong>clude violence am<strong>on</strong>g females, am<strong>on</strong>g males, and by females <strong>on</strong> males (see, for example, Dunne et al.2006). However, most <str<strong>on</strong>g>of</str<strong>on</strong>g> <str<strong>on</strong>g>the</str<strong>on</strong>g> studies <strong>in</strong> Nigeria (and <strong>in</strong>deed <strong>in</strong> many o<str<strong>on</strong>g>the</str<strong>on</strong>g>r countries) <strong>on</strong> <str<strong>on</strong>g>the</str<strong>on</strong>g>se less <str<strong>on</strong>g>of</str<strong>on</strong>g>tenrecognised aspects <str<strong>on</strong>g>of</str<strong>on</strong>g> gender violence have not been researched with<strong>in</strong> an understand<strong>in</strong>g <str<strong>on</strong>g>of</str<strong>on</strong>g> gender(although <str<strong>on</strong>g>the</str<strong>on</strong>g>y have generally provided gender-disaggregated data). As a result, <str<strong>on</strong>g>the</str<strong>on</strong>g>y are discussedseparately <strong>in</strong> secti<strong>on</strong>s 4.6 and 4.7 <strong>on</strong> teacher–pupil and pupil–pupil relati<strong>on</strong>s <strong>in</strong> <str<strong>on</strong>g>the</str<strong>on</strong>g> classroom, and <strong>in</strong>Chapter 12 <strong>on</strong> pupil management.8.4.2 Sexual violenceJust as it is explicitly recognised <strong>in</strong> <str<strong>on</strong>g>the</str<strong>on</strong>g> Nati<strong>on</strong>al Policy <strong>on</strong> Gender <strong>in</strong> Basic Educati<strong>on</strong> (FME 2007a), so it isalso widely known that sexual violence, which <strong>in</strong>cludes sexual harassment, occurs <strong>in</strong> schools.Specifically, <str<strong>on</strong>g>the</str<strong>on</strong>g>re are major safety c<strong>on</strong>cerns about female pupils and teachers be<strong>in</strong>g harassed andabused verbally, emoti<strong>on</strong>ally and/or physically or sexually (<strong>in</strong>clud<strong>in</strong>g rape) ei<str<strong>on</strong>g>the</str<strong>on</strong>g>r <strong>on</strong> <str<strong>on</strong>g>the</str<strong>on</strong>g> way to and fromschool or <strong>in</strong> school itself. Both male teachers and pupils have been implicated (FME 2005; FME 2007b;Para-Mallam 2010; Acti<strong>on</strong>Aid 2011; British Council 2012; Bakari 2013; Dunne et al. 2013), as well aso<str<strong>on</strong>g>the</str<strong>on</strong>g>r authority figures <strong>in</strong>clud<strong>in</strong>g religious <strong>in</strong>structors (Para-Mallam 2010). Similarly, sexual harassmentand violence aga<strong>in</strong>st female tra<strong>in</strong>ee teachers has been reported <strong>in</strong> colleges <str<strong>on</strong>g>of</str<strong>on</strong>g> educati<strong>on</strong> (Leach andBakari 2008; UNICEF 2012).Although a serious issue, and <strong>on</strong>e that is prevalent <strong>in</strong> educati<strong>on</strong>al <strong>in</strong>stituti<strong>on</strong>s worldwide <strong>in</strong> <strong>on</strong>e form orano<str<strong>on</strong>g>the</str<strong>on</strong>g>r (see Leach and Mitchell 2006), it is rarely acknowledged and/or is underreported (Adelabu2005; FME 2007b; Acti<strong>on</strong>Aid 2011; Dunne et al. 2013).On <str<strong>on</strong>g>the</str<strong>on</strong>g> way to school bus drivers, okada riders and school boys have also been found to verbally abuseschool girls with comments laced with sexual <strong>in</strong>nuendo (Acti<strong>on</strong>Aid 2004, cited <strong>in</strong> Ant<strong>on</strong>owicz et al.2010). The same study noted that girls’ fear <str<strong>on</strong>g>of</str<strong>on</strong>g> sexual harassment comb<strong>in</strong>ed with verbal abuse from(some) boys and male teachers resulted <strong>in</strong> a lack <str<strong>on</strong>g>of</str<strong>on</strong>g> trust between classmates. Some girls also feltculpable <strong>in</strong> some way (ibid.).EDOREN – Educati<strong>on</strong> Data, Research and Evaluati<strong>on</strong> <strong>in</strong> Nigeria 88
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