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Review <strong>of</strong> <strong>the</strong> <strong>literature</strong> on basic education in Nigeriaattendance as reported in <strong>the</strong> 2004 ESA (FME 2005) – malaria, typhoid and diarrhoea – are all related towater and sanitation issues.9.5.2 Intestinal parasitesOne <strong>of</strong> <strong>the</strong> results <strong>of</strong> this poor water and sanitation is high prevalence rates among children <strong>of</strong> intestinalparasites (Igagbone and Olagunju 2006; Olaniyi et al. 2007; Opara et al. 2012). Children living in rural orurban slum areas are particularly affected (Olaniyi et al. 2007). Studies across several states reportedtwo-thirds or more <strong>of</strong> children being infected (and <strong>of</strong>ten re-infected) with various intestinal parasites(Igagbone and Olagunju 2006; Opara et al. 2012). These high prevalence rates have showed little sign <strong>of</strong>improvement over <strong>the</strong> last 50 years, yet <strong>the</strong> persistence <strong>of</strong> parasites arrests children’s physical andcognitive development as well as leaving <strong>the</strong>m prone to disease and malnutrition (Igagbone andOlagunju 2006; Opara et al. 2012).9.5.3 MalariaMalaria is endemic in Nigeria but <strong>the</strong>re are limited data available on its impact on children’s andteachers’ school attendance. In <strong>the</strong> 2004 ESA, however, malaria was overwhelmingly identified as <strong>the</strong>main health reason for missing school (by over 80% <strong>of</strong> pupils and just under 50% <strong>of</strong> staff) (FME 2005).In addition, <strong>the</strong> recent national survey on malaria found that a quarter <strong>of</strong> all household members hadhad a fever in <strong>the</strong> two weeks prior to <strong>the</strong> survey, with <strong>the</strong> highest figures in <strong>the</strong> North West, where overa third had reportedly been ill. For children aged 5 to 9 <strong>the</strong> figure was 26.6%, while 10 to 14-year oldswere slightly less affected (19.3%) (NPC, NMCP and ICF International 2012).9.5.4 HIV and AIDSAno<strong>the</strong>r major health challenge is HIV and AIDS; although overall national HIV prevalence is estimatedto have stabilised at around 3.3% (Samuels et al. 2012), an estimated 2.8 million children under 17 areliving with HIV, many <strong>of</strong> whom are not attending school (BUCGHD 2009). Additionally, latest figuresfrom <strong>the</strong> NEDS reported that around 7% <strong>of</strong> adults knew <strong>of</strong> children in <strong>the</strong> community <strong>the</strong>y believed wereabsent from school because a parent or guardian was ill with ei<strong>the</strong>r HIV or AIDS, a figure which washighest for <strong>the</strong> North Central and South East zones, both at over 12%. Moreover, rural communitieswere affected more than urban ones (NPC and RTI International 2011). A recent study on HIVvulnerabilities in four states (Adamawa, Benue, Edo and Lagos) highlighted working-age and youngchildren and youth, especially OVCs and young women, as being especially vulnerable to HIV infection(Samuels et al. 2012). Young women (aged 14 to 24) were three times more likely to be HIV positivethan young men. Inevitably, poverty was also a factor. Households in difficult economic circumstanceswith high numbers <strong>of</strong> dependents are more at risk <strong>of</strong> poverty, food insecurity and malnutrition and<strong>the</strong>refore at fur<strong>the</strong>r risk <strong>of</strong> infection by engaging in risky practices such as transactional sex in exchangefor food (ibid.). The study also highlighted <strong>the</strong> limited awareness <strong>of</strong> HIV prevention, according to 2008NDHS data, especially in <strong>the</strong> three nor<strong>the</strong>rn zones and among poor, rural women (Samuels et al. 2012).9.5.5 Family members’ ill healthAdult ill health can also have an impact on children; in <strong>the</strong> 2004 ESA pupil survey caring for sick parentswas identified as a major constraint on school attendance by over 10% <strong>of</strong> pupil respondents (FME 2005).Some children not only have to look after sick parents but may also sometimes have to go out to earnmoney, to make up for <strong>the</strong> lack <strong>of</strong> household income (Samuels et al. 2012). In so doing, <strong>the</strong>y are at risk<strong>of</strong> fur<strong>the</strong>r impoverishment (with its associated health risks) because <strong>the</strong>ir income-earning potential isless than that <strong>of</strong> an adult (ibid.).EDOREN – Education Data, Research and Evaluation in Nigeria 107
Review <strong>of</strong> <strong>the</strong> <strong>literature</strong> on basic education in NigeriaChild labourers that work in hazardous conditions are also likely to be particularly affected by healthissues (UNICEF 2006).Joint initiatives between <strong>the</strong> ministries <strong>of</strong> health and education have been suggested to enhance pupils’wellbeing in school (Dunne et al. 2013). However, in <strong>the</strong> final assessment <strong>of</strong> COMPASS, it was concludedthat such initiatives were difficult to establish because <strong>of</strong> <strong>the</strong> separate vertical flows in funding andmanagement that exist in education and health, both in government and within donor agencies (Holfeldet al. 2008).9.6 Cultural issuesThere are many gendered cultural reasons related to religion and/or lifestyle that affect girls’ and boys’participation in schooling. As regards religious issues, <strong>the</strong>y are strongly gendered, impacting differentlyon girls and boys.Many <strong>of</strong> <strong>the</strong> issues that hinder girls’ and boys’ participation in schooling that were discussed in Chapter8 are ascribed to religious culture, and to interpretations <strong>of</strong> Islam in particular. The way in whichinterpretations <strong>of</strong> Christianity, or even ATR, may affect school participation has not attracted <strong>the</strong> samelevel <strong>of</strong> attention on <strong>the</strong> part <strong>of</strong> researchers (Nyemutu-Roberts et al. 2009), which in part may bebecause most research has accompanied development initiatives in <strong>the</strong> predominantly Muslim areas <strong>of</strong>nor<strong>the</strong>rn Nigeria and because Muslim girls have been one <strong>of</strong> <strong>the</strong> main targets <strong>of</strong> educationalinterventions.As was highlighted in Chapter 8, Muslim girls – especially those from poor, traditional families – aregenerally considered to be particularly disadvantaged in terms <strong>of</strong> opportunities for educationalparticipation because <strong>of</strong> traditions <strong>of</strong> early marriage and hawking, which in turn is <strong>of</strong>ten driven by <strong>the</strong>need to save for kayan daki (trousseau or dowry) and <strong>the</strong> fact that mo<strong>the</strong>rs <strong>of</strong>ten live in purdah, orseclusion, and are <strong>the</strong>refore not allowed out <strong>of</strong> <strong>the</strong>ir homes to earn money (Sada et al. 2005; Okojie2012; UNICEF 2012). Parental concerns about public schooling being ‘western’ and anti-Islam are als<strong>of</strong>ound in some communities (UNICEF 2012; Dunne et al. 2013).For Muslim boys <strong>the</strong> most obvious cultural-religious constraint to participation in schooling is <strong>the</strong>almajirai system, described in Section 8.6.2.A number <strong>of</strong> Muslim children attend Qur’anic school before (or after) attending government school.Dunne et al.’s (2013) study in Adamawa State reported that numerous children (girls and boys) arrivedlate to public school in <strong>the</strong> morning after being released late from Qur’anic school, which was due t<strong>of</strong>inish at 8am. This frequently resulted in <strong>the</strong>ir being beaten or, in order to avoid being beaten, <strong>the</strong>ywould miss school altoge<strong>the</strong>r or sneak in after <strong>the</strong> gate was no longer being patrolled. There was littleevidence <strong>of</strong> schools and religious leaders working toge<strong>the</strong>r to arrange a timetable that couldaccommodate both types <strong>of</strong> schooling (ibid.).The lifestyles <strong>of</strong> Nigeria’s many nomads can also impact negatively on participation in formal education,compounded by ill-fitting aspects <strong>of</strong> school and curriculum organisation and discrimination at school –as described below in Section 9.7.9.7 Nomads and formal educationMost <strong>of</strong> this section derives from research on nomadic pastoralists in nor<strong>the</strong>rn Nigeria. Despite <strong>the</strong>increasing numbers <strong>of</strong> nomadic pastoralists attending school, as reported in Section 7.8, participationrates are still relatively low and dropout rates are reportedly still high (Usman 2006). The variousreasons for this are reported on below.EDOREN – Education Data, Research and Evaluation in Nigeria 108
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