Review <str<strong>on</strong>g>of</str<strong>on</strong>g> <str<strong>on</strong>g>the</str<strong>on</strong>g> <str<strong>on</strong>g>literature</str<strong>on</strong>g> <strong>on</strong> <strong>basic</strong> educati<strong>on</strong> <strong>in</strong> Nigeria9.8 C<strong>on</strong>flictThere is scarcely any academic <str<strong>on</strong>g>literature</str<strong>on</strong>g> <strong>on</strong> c<strong>on</strong>flict and educati<strong>on</strong> <strong>in</strong> Nigeria, although <str<strong>on</strong>g>the</str<strong>on</strong>g> explicittarget<strong>in</strong>g and burn<strong>in</strong>g <str<strong>on</strong>g>of</str<strong>on</strong>g> schools and kill<strong>in</strong>g <str<strong>on</strong>g>of</str<strong>on</strong>g> students and teachers by <str<strong>on</strong>g>the</str<strong>on</strong>g> Islamist militant group BokoHaram (which loosely translates as ‘western educati<strong>on</strong> is forbidden/s<strong>in</strong>ful’) <strong>in</strong> <str<strong>on</strong>g>the</str<strong>on</strong>g> North East hasbrought <str<strong>on</strong>g>the</str<strong>on</strong>g> issue <strong>in</strong>to sharp relief. In an Amnesty Internati<strong>on</strong>al report (2013) based <strong>on</strong> newspaperreports and <strong>in</strong>terviews with a range <str<strong>on</strong>g>of</str<strong>on</strong>g> government and civilian resp<strong>on</strong>dents, primarily <strong>in</strong> Borno State, itwas estimated that over 1,000 teachers have been forced to flee and up to 15,000 children have beenforced out <str<strong>on</strong>g>of</str<strong>on</strong>g> school. The NEI’s mid-term <str<strong>on</strong>g>review</str<strong>on</strong>g> noted <str<strong>on</strong>g>the</str<strong>on</strong>g> substantial <strong>in</strong>crease <strong>in</strong> numbers <str<strong>on</strong>g>of</str<strong>on</strong>g> OVCs <strong>in</strong>communities <strong>in</strong> Bauchi and Sokoto <strong>on</strong> account <str<strong>on</strong>g>of</str<strong>on</strong>g> displaced people result<strong>in</strong>g from <str<strong>on</strong>g>the</str<strong>on</strong>g> c<strong>on</strong>flict <strong>in</strong>neighbour<strong>in</strong>g states (Larcom et al. 2013).In May 2013, Borno SUBEB directed all staff to stay at home and many schools <strong>in</strong> <str<strong>on</strong>g>the</str<strong>on</strong>g> state capital,Maiduguri, were closed for several m<strong>on</strong>ths and students could not sit exams. In additi<strong>on</strong>, teachers havereported threats and <strong>in</strong>timidati<strong>on</strong>, especially teachers <str<strong>on</strong>g>of</str<strong>on</strong>g> English, result<strong>in</strong>g <strong>in</strong> low morale and adverselyaffect<strong>in</strong>g <str<strong>on</strong>g>the</str<strong>on</strong>g>ir ability to teach (ibid.). Teachers <strong>in</strong> Borno felt <str<strong>on</strong>g>the</str<strong>on</strong>g>y were not gett<strong>in</strong>g sufficient protecti<strong>on</strong>and called <strong>on</strong> government to fence <str<strong>on</strong>g>the</str<strong>on</strong>g> schools and to <strong>in</strong>vestigate <str<strong>on</strong>g>the</str<strong>on</strong>g> abuses. The report went <strong>on</strong> to saythat <str<strong>on</strong>g>the</str<strong>on</strong>g> State <str<strong>on</strong>g>of</str<strong>on</strong>g> Emergency declared <strong>in</strong> three states <strong>in</strong> <str<strong>on</strong>g>the</str<strong>on</strong>g> North East (Adamawa, Borno and Yobe) <strong>in</strong>2013 had resulted <strong>in</strong> a lack <str<strong>on</strong>g>of</str<strong>on</strong>g> public transport, mak<strong>in</strong>g it impossible for some pupils and students toreach school. Poor-quality educati<strong>on</strong> has also been l<strong>in</strong>ked to <str<strong>on</strong>g>the</str<strong>on</strong>g> violence itself: many militants <strong>in</strong> BokoHaram have been identified as young sec<strong>on</strong>dary school dropouts (Danjibo 2009).Box 9.5 The impact <str<strong>on</strong>g>of</str<strong>on</strong>g> Boko Haram <strong>on</strong> formal school<strong>in</strong>g‘I saw <str<strong>on</strong>g>the</str<strong>on</strong>g> gunmen walk<strong>in</strong>g towards <str<strong>on</strong>g>the</str<strong>on</strong>g> school compound, two <str<strong>on</strong>g>of</str<strong>on</strong>g> <str<strong>on</strong>g>the</str<strong>on</strong>g>m. I was shout<strong>in</strong>g at <str<strong>on</strong>g>the</str<strong>on</strong>g> kids toenter <str<strong>on</strong>g>the</str<strong>on</strong>g>ir classrooms. I th<strong>in</strong>k he was try<strong>in</strong>g to get some peanuts from <str<strong>on</strong>g>the</str<strong>on</strong>g> woman that sells outside<str<strong>on</strong>g>the</str<strong>on</strong>g> gate. All <str<strong>on</strong>g>the</str<strong>on</strong>g> children were <str<strong>on</strong>g>the</str<strong>on</strong>g>re. They parked <str<strong>on</strong>g>the</str<strong>on</strong>g>ir car a few yards away and came straight to himand shot him at close range. We all ran for cover when we heard <str<strong>on</strong>g>the</str<strong>on</strong>g> shot. It was scary. All <str<strong>on</strong>g>the</str<strong>on</strong>g>children were scream<strong>in</strong>g. Mallam Yusuf has been a teacher all his life. Many young men and womenhave passed through him <strong>in</strong> this state. I w<strong>on</strong>der why anybody would want to kill such a peaceful andquiet pers<strong>on</strong>. He was just do<strong>in</strong>g his job as a teacher.’A colleague who witnessed <str<strong>on</strong>g>the</str<strong>on</strong>g> kill<strong>in</strong>g <str<strong>on</strong>g>of</str<strong>on</strong>g> Mallam Yusuf Mohammad, a 44-year-old teacher <strong>in</strong> a primary school <strong>in</strong>Gwange III, who was shot and killed by unknown gunmen outside his school <strong>in</strong> Maiduguri <strong>in</strong> May 2013 (p. 4).‘I was <strong>in</strong> my class when all <str<strong>on</strong>g>of</str<strong>on</strong>g> a sudden I heard a big blast. My sister (<strong>in</strong> class 3) was killed by <str<strong>on</strong>g>the</str<strong>on</strong>g> bombattack. I wanted to see what was happen<strong>in</strong>g...we ran away from Maiduguri and came to Kangere(Bauchi state) and I’m now liv<strong>in</strong>g with my sister <strong>in</strong> Jos…I have not been able to go to school ever s<strong>in</strong>ce.I miss a lot <str<strong>on</strong>g>of</str<strong>on</strong>g> my friends <strong>in</strong> school. I’d be happy to go back to school <strong>in</strong> Kangere where my fa<str<strong>on</strong>g>the</str<strong>on</strong>g>r lives,but not <strong>in</strong> Maiduguri.’S.A., a 13-year-old former pupil <str<strong>on</strong>g>of</str<strong>on</strong>g> Janjeri primary school <strong>in</strong> Maiduguri, Borno State, who witnessed a bomb attack<strong>on</strong> his school that killed his younger sister (p. 7).‘Last m<strong>on</strong>th [March 2013], two members <str<strong>on</strong>g>of</str<strong>on</strong>g> <str<strong>on</strong>g>the</str<strong>on</strong>g> group came to my house <strong>in</strong> <str<strong>on</strong>g>the</str<strong>on</strong>g> middle <str<strong>on</strong>g>of</str<strong>on</strong>g> <str<strong>on</strong>g>the</str<strong>on</strong>g> night,with a machete and a gun. They put a gun <strong>on</strong> my head <strong>in</strong> fr<strong>on</strong>t <str<strong>on</strong>g>of</str<strong>on</strong>g> my children. My wife was cry<strong>in</strong>g.They told me to ei<str<strong>on</strong>g>the</str<strong>on</strong>g>r stop teach<strong>in</strong>g English and start teach<strong>in</strong>g Arabic or close <str<strong>on</strong>g>the</str<strong>on</strong>g> school… I told <str<strong>on</strong>g>the</str<strong>on</strong>g>mI can’t. I d<strong>on</strong>’t know how to teach Arabic. They said if I d<strong>on</strong>’t, <str<strong>on</strong>g>the</str<strong>on</strong>g>y’ll kill me and my entire family.’H.H. aged 44, a community schoolteacher <strong>in</strong> <strong>on</strong>e <str<strong>on</strong>g>of</str<strong>on</strong>g> <str<strong>on</strong>g>the</str<strong>on</strong>g> towns <strong>in</strong> nor<str<strong>on</strong>g>the</str<strong>on</strong>g>rn Borno State (p. 11).‘There were no schools operat<strong>in</strong>g <strong>in</strong> <str<strong>on</strong>g>the</str<strong>on</strong>g> town before I left. One was burned by unknown gunmen. All<str<strong>on</strong>g>the</str<strong>on</strong>g> pupils were transferred to <str<strong>on</strong>g>the</str<strong>on</strong>g> o<str<strong>on</strong>g>the</str<strong>on</strong>g>r school. Now that school has stopped functi<strong>on</strong><strong>in</strong>g. It’s agovernment school. The o<str<strong>on</strong>g>the</str<strong>on</strong>g>r teachers said <str<strong>on</strong>g>the</str<strong>on</strong>g>y can’t c<strong>on</strong>t<strong>in</strong>ue to teach because <str<strong>on</strong>g>the</str<strong>on</strong>g>y are afraid. Thechildren just stay at home now. In fact, many <str<strong>on</strong>g>of</str<strong>on</strong>g> my colleagues have run away and come toMaiduguri.’A teacher from a government primary school <strong>in</strong> a town <strong>in</strong> Borno State, April 2013 (p. 13)EDOREN – Educati<strong>on</strong> Data, Research and Evaluati<strong>on</strong> <strong>in</strong> Nigeria 111
Review <str<strong>on</strong>g>of</str<strong>on</strong>g> <str<strong>on</strong>g>the</str<strong>on</strong>g> <str<strong>on</strong>g>literature</str<strong>on</strong>g> <strong>on</strong> <strong>basic</strong> educati<strong>on</strong> <strong>in</strong> Nigeria‘At least 80% <str<strong>on</strong>g>of</str<strong>on</strong>g> <str<strong>on</strong>g>the</str<strong>on</strong>g> pupils <strong>in</strong> my school were taken away by <str<strong>on</strong>g>the</str<strong>on</strong>g>ir parents… In June 2013, Boko Haramwarned students not to go to <str<strong>on</strong>g>the</str<strong>on</strong>g> schools to take <str<strong>on</strong>g>the</str<strong>on</strong>g> Nati<strong>on</strong>al Exam<strong>in</strong>ati<strong>on</strong>s Council exams <strong>in</strong> Bamatown. The number <str<strong>on</strong>g>of</str<strong>on</strong>g> candidates who took <str<strong>on</strong>g>the</str<strong>on</strong>g> exams reduced drastically.’Former teacher from Borno currently hid<strong>in</strong>g <strong>in</strong> Kaduna (p. 15).‘The entire town was locked down. No movement is allowed <strong>in</strong> or out. The army has banned <str<strong>on</strong>g>the</str<strong>on</strong>g> use<str<strong>on</strong>g>of</str<strong>on</strong>g> all forms <str<strong>on</strong>g>of</str<strong>on</strong>g> transportati<strong>on</strong> even with<strong>in</strong> <str<strong>on</strong>g>the</str<strong>on</strong>g> town. So teachers cannot go to school; parents cannotsend <str<strong>on</strong>g>the</str<strong>on</strong>g>ir children to school because you have to walk, regardless <str<strong>on</strong>g>of</str<strong>on</strong>g> <str<strong>on</strong>g>the</str<strong>on</strong>g> distance.’A 25-year-old teacher from Old Bama primary school, comment<strong>in</strong>g <strong>on</strong> <str<strong>on</strong>g>the</str<strong>on</strong>g> state <str<strong>on</strong>g>of</str<strong>on</strong>g> emergency restricti<strong>on</strong>s. He fledBama <strong>in</strong> May 2013 and is currently seek<strong>in</strong>g refuge <strong>in</strong> Kaduna (p. 16).Source: Amnesty Internati<strong>on</strong>al (2013)O<str<strong>on</strong>g>the</str<strong>on</strong>g>r notable c<strong>on</strong>flicts <strong>in</strong> Nigeria <strong>in</strong> recent years have <strong>in</strong>cluded <str<strong>on</strong>g>the</str<strong>on</strong>g> <strong>in</strong>ter-communal violence <strong>in</strong> Plateauand Kano states, which at its height between 2001 and 2004 resulted <strong>in</strong> <str<strong>on</strong>g>the</str<strong>on</strong>g> deaths <str<strong>on</strong>g>of</str<strong>on</strong>g> between 2,000and 3,000 people (Human Rights Watch (HRW) 2005). There have also been l<strong>on</strong>g-runn<strong>in</strong>g c<strong>on</strong>flicts <strong>in</strong> <str<strong>on</strong>g>the</str<strong>on</strong>g>Niger Delta that have escalated s<strong>in</strong>ce <str<strong>on</strong>g>the</str<strong>on</strong>g> late 1990s and are typified by violent armed gang warfare,some <str<strong>on</strong>g>of</str<strong>on</strong>g> it politically sp<strong>on</strong>sored, <strong>in</strong>volv<strong>in</strong>g young unemployed men who cite <str<strong>on</strong>g>the</str<strong>on</strong>g> lack <str<strong>on</strong>g>of</str<strong>on</strong>g> educati<strong>on</strong>al andemployment opportunities am<strong>on</strong>g <str<strong>on</strong>g>the</str<strong>on</strong>g>ir reas<strong>on</strong>s for engag<strong>in</strong>g <strong>in</strong> such activities (UNDP 2006; HRW 2008;Bagaji et al. 2011). Many children are denied access to school<strong>in</strong>g as schools and entire villages havebeen destroyed and communities displaced over <str<strong>on</strong>g>the</str<strong>on</strong>g> years <str<strong>on</strong>g>of</str<strong>on</strong>g> c<strong>on</strong>flict (ibid.). In UBEC’s impactassessment, stakeholders highlighted <str<strong>on</strong>g>the</str<strong>on</strong>g> fact that ‘<strong>in</strong>ter-communal c<strong>on</strong>flict <strong>in</strong> some states discouragedparents from send<strong>in</strong>g <str<strong>on</strong>g>the</str<strong>on</strong>g>ir wards to school’, with nomads s<strong>in</strong>gled out as be<strong>in</strong>g particularly affected(UBEC 2012a: 286).Nigeria’s Nati<strong>on</strong>al Commissi<strong>on</strong> for Refugees estimated that around 3 milli<strong>on</strong> people were <strong>in</strong>ternallydisplaced because <str<strong>on</strong>g>of</str<strong>on</strong>g> strife between 1999 and 2006 (HRW 2007). C<strong>on</strong>t<strong>in</strong>u<strong>in</strong>g low levels <str<strong>on</strong>g>of</str<strong>on</strong>g> government<strong>in</strong>vestment <strong>in</strong> <strong>in</strong>frastructure such as schools and health care fur<str<strong>on</strong>g>the</str<strong>on</strong>g>r c<strong>on</strong>tribute to <str<strong>on</strong>g>the</str<strong>on</strong>g> social c<strong>on</strong>diti<strong>on</strong>sthat susta<strong>in</strong> <str<strong>on</strong>g>the</str<strong>on</strong>g> violence (UNDP 2006; HRW 2008; Bagaji et al. 2011).Research from o<str<strong>on</strong>g>the</str<strong>on</strong>g>r countries reported <strong>in</strong> <str<strong>on</strong>g>the</str<strong>on</strong>g> 2011 EFA Global M<strong>on</strong>itor<strong>in</strong>g Report (UNESCO 2011)<strong>in</strong>dicates that <strong>in</strong> situati<strong>on</strong>s <str<strong>on</strong>g>of</str<strong>on</strong>g> armed c<strong>on</strong>flict: <str<strong>on</strong>g>the</str<strong>on</strong>g> child mortality rate is higher; children are less likely tobe <strong>in</strong> school; children can be traumatised; gender and o<str<strong>on</strong>g>the</str<strong>on</strong>g>r <strong>in</strong>equalities are exacerbated; resources aredirected away from educati<strong>on</strong>; and poverty is <strong>in</strong>creased – as crops and property are destroyed andaccess to markets is blocked, which <strong>in</strong>evitably affects <str<strong>on</strong>g>the</str<strong>on</strong>g> ability <str<strong>on</strong>g>of</str<strong>on</strong>g> poor families to send pupils to school.Studies specifically focused <strong>on</strong> <str<strong>on</strong>g>the</str<strong>on</strong>g> impact <str<strong>on</strong>g>of</str<strong>on</strong>g> c<strong>on</strong>flict <strong>in</strong> Nigeria <strong>on</strong> educati<strong>on</strong> and/or <str<strong>on</strong>g>the</str<strong>on</strong>g> role educati<strong>on</strong>may play <strong>in</strong> fuell<strong>in</strong>g or appeas<strong>in</strong>g c<strong>on</strong>flict are currently lack<strong>in</strong>g.9.9 Issues aris<strong>in</strong>g and gaps <strong>in</strong> <str<strong>on</strong>g>the</str<strong>on</strong>g> evidenceThere is plenty <str<strong>on</strong>g>of</str<strong>on</strong>g> evidence that identifies out-<str<strong>on</strong>g>of</str<strong>on</strong>g>-school factors affect<strong>in</strong>g access and retenti<strong>on</strong> <strong>in</strong> schoolbut <str<strong>on</strong>g>the</str<strong>on</strong>g>re is a lack <str<strong>on</strong>g>of</str<strong>on</strong>g> studies that explore how <str<strong>on</strong>g>the</str<strong>on</strong>g>se various factors <strong>in</strong>terrelate (and relate to <strong>in</strong>-schoolfactors) with particular groups <str<strong>on</strong>g>of</str<strong>on</strong>g> children.While <str<strong>on</strong>g>the</str<strong>on</strong>g>re is some research about practices associated with Islam and <str<strong>on</strong>g>the</str<strong>on</strong>g>ir impact <strong>on</strong> educati<strong>on</strong> (e.g.kayan daki) very little is known about Christianity and ATR or about how ethnicity <strong>in</strong>teracts with religi<strong>on</strong>and relates to school<strong>in</strong>g <strong>in</strong> different rural and urban locati<strong>on</strong>s <strong>in</strong> Nigeria.Pupil track<strong>in</strong>g and spatial and time mapp<strong>in</strong>g would help to understand what pupils’ daily lives are like<strong>in</strong>side and outside <str<strong>on</strong>g>of</str<strong>on</strong>g> school and <str<strong>on</strong>g>the</str<strong>on</strong>g> multiple c<strong>on</strong>stra<strong>in</strong>ts many face.Much more needs to be known about nomadic school<strong>in</strong>g <strong>in</strong> practice and how it fits <strong>in</strong> with nomadiclifestyles <strong>in</strong> particular communities. How do <str<strong>on</strong>g>the</str<strong>on</strong>g> lives <str<strong>on</strong>g>of</str<strong>on</strong>g> fully nomadic pastoralists compare with those <str<strong>on</strong>g>of</str<strong>on</strong>g>EDOREN – Educati<strong>on</strong> Data, Research and Evaluati<strong>on</strong> <strong>in</strong> Nigeria 112
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