Review <str<strong>on</strong>g>of</str<strong>on</strong>g> <str<strong>on</strong>g>the</str<strong>on</strong>g> <str<strong>on</strong>g>literature</str<strong>on</strong>g> <strong>on</strong> <strong>basic</strong> educati<strong>on</strong> <strong>in</strong> NigeriaOne obstacle to address<strong>in</strong>g this issue is <str<strong>on</strong>g>the</str<strong>on</strong>g> apparent level <str<strong>on</strong>g>of</str<strong>on</strong>g> acceptance <str<strong>on</strong>g>of</str<strong>on</strong>g> violence aga<strong>in</strong>st women <strong>in</strong>Nigerian society more generally, even by women <str<strong>on</strong>g>the</str<strong>on</strong>g>mselves. For example, <strong>in</strong> <strong>on</strong>e nati<strong>on</strong>al surveyaround 46% <str<strong>on</strong>g>of</str<strong>on</strong>g> women agreed that it was acceptable for <str<strong>on</strong>g>the</str<strong>on</strong>g>ir male partner/spouse to beat <str<strong>on</strong>g>the</str<strong>on</strong>g>m for <strong>on</strong>eor more reas<strong>on</strong>s such as burn<strong>in</strong>g <str<strong>on</strong>g>the</str<strong>on</strong>g> food, refus<strong>in</strong>g to have sex, or go<strong>in</strong>g out without tell<strong>in</strong>g <str<strong>on</strong>g>the</str<strong>on</strong>g>irpartner/spouse (NBS 2011). Figures were higher for rural and less educated women.In <str<strong>on</strong>g>the</str<strong>on</strong>g> TEGINT study, sexual harassment and violence was widely reported by girls <strong>in</strong> some states (FCTand Niger), although not <strong>in</strong> o<str<strong>on</strong>g>the</str<strong>on</strong>g>rs (Kats<strong>in</strong>a, Bauchi and Kaduna). This was thought to be due tounderreport<strong>in</strong>g (Acti<strong>on</strong>Aid 2011); nomadic Fulbe girls and women, for example, are explicitly told not totalk about such matters to strangers (Usman 2010).The TEGINT study also reported frequent denial by head teachers or o<str<strong>on</strong>g>the</str<strong>on</strong>g>r <str<strong>on</strong>g>of</str<strong>on</strong>g>ficials that violence wastak<strong>in</strong>g place, as well as a lack <str<strong>on</strong>g>of</str<strong>on</strong>g> effective acti<strong>on</strong> taken <strong>in</strong> <str<strong>on</strong>g>the</str<strong>on</strong>g> event <str<strong>on</strong>g>of</str<strong>on</strong>g> it be<strong>in</strong>g reported (Acti<strong>on</strong>Aid 2011).Follow<strong>in</strong>g project <strong>in</strong>terventi<strong>on</strong>s, <str<strong>on</strong>g>the</str<strong>on</strong>g> endl<strong>in</strong>e survey c<strong>on</strong>cluded that schools and communities showedgreater will<strong>in</strong>gness to discuss violence, and girls had greater c<strong>on</strong>fidence <strong>in</strong> report<strong>in</strong>g and challeng<strong>in</strong>gviolence, but that <str<strong>on</strong>g>the</str<strong>on</strong>g>re were still ‘troubl<strong>in</strong>g silences and a lack <str<strong>on</strong>g>of</str<strong>on</strong>g> understand<strong>in</strong>g <str<strong>on</strong>g>of</str<strong>on</strong>g> gender <strong>in</strong>equalitiesand violence’ (Acti<strong>on</strong>Aid 2012: 22).A similar denial <str<strong>on</strong>g>of</str<strong>on</strong>g> sexual violence by teachers and o<str<strong>on</strong>g>the</str<strong>on</strong>g>r adults <strong>in</strong>terviewed was a feature <str<strong>on</strong>g>of</str<strong>on</strong>g> <str<strong>on</strong>g>the</str<strong>on</strong>g> FME’snati<strong>on</strong>al assessment <strong>on</strong> violence <strong>in</strong> <strong>basic</strong> educati<strong>on</strong> (FME 2007b); although around 11% female learnersadmitted <str<strong>on</strong>g>the</str<strong>on</strong>g>y knew <str<strong>on</strong>g>of</str<strong>on</strong>g> cases <str<strong>on</strong>g>of</str<strong>on</strong>g> rape <strong>in</strong> school, not <strong>on</strong>e female teacher acknowledged its existence and<strong>on</strong>ly 2% <str<strong>on</strong>g>of</str<strong>on</strong>g> male teachers did. Adolescent girls at JSS level were more at risk <str<strong>on</strong>g>of</str<strong>on</strong>g> sexual predati<strong>on</strong> than atprimary level, or at least were more will<strong>in</strong>g to report it. Unsurpris<strong>in</strong>gly, violence – particularly sexualviolence – was <str<strong>on</strong>g>of</str<strong>on</strong>g>ten not reported (ibid.).In <str<strong>on</strong>g>the</str<strong>on</strong>g> 2004 ESA survey <str<strong>on</strong>g>of</str<strong>on</strong>g> head teachers, around 13% admitted that female students had been sexuallyharassed <strong>in</strong> <str<strong>on</strong>g>the</str<strong>on</strong>g>ir schools, with male teachers identified as <str<strong>on</strong>g>the</str<strong>on</strong>g> ma<strong>in</strong> culprits <strong>in</strong> 39% <str<strong>on</strong>g>of</str<strong>on</strong>g> <str<strong>on</strong>g>the</str<strong>on</strong>g> cases (FME2005). However, <str<strong>on</strong>g>the</str<strong>on</strong>g>se are likely to be underestimates given that f<strong>in</strong>d<strong>in</strong>gs from <str<strong>on</strong>g>the</str<strong>on</strong>g> same survey suggesthigher numbers <str<strong>on</strong>g>of</str<strong>on</strong>g> girls dropp<strong>in</strong>g out due to pregnancy (FME 2005).School-age female hawkers, as reported above, are particularly at risk <str<strong>on</strong>g>of</str<strong>on</strong>g> sexual violence and <str<strong>on</strong>g>the</str<strong>on</strong>g>reforevulnerable to pregnancy and HIV <strong>in</strong>fecti<strong>on</strong> (Sada et al. 2005; Ikechebelu et al. 2008; Aransiola et al.2009; Audu et al. 2009; see also Secti<strong>on</strong> 9.3).8.5 Initiatives to improve female participati<strong>on</strong> <strong>in</strong> educati<strong>on</strong>Over several years now <str<strong>on</strong>g>the</str<strong>on</strong>g>re has been a d<strong>on</strong>or-driven accelerati<strong>on</strong> <strong>in</strong> <str<strong>on</strong>g>the</str<strong>on</strong>g> push to <strong>in</strong>crease femaleparticipati<strong>on</strong> <strong>in</strong> <strong>basic</strong> educati<strong>on</strong>, <strong>in</strong> nor<str<strong>on</strong>g>the</str<strong>on</strong>g>rn Nigeria <strong>in</strong> particular. State and LGEA social mobilisati<strong>on</strong>units have been active <strong>in</strong> many nor<str<strong>on</strong>g>the</str<strong>on</strong>g>rn states, <str<strong>on</strong>g>of</str<strong>on</strong>g>ten work<strong>in</strong>g with traditi<strong>on</strong>al and religious leaders andSBMCs to help change community attitudes regard<strong>in</strong>g female educati<strong>on</strong> and to encourage traditi<strong>on</strong>alMuslim families <strong>in</strong> particular to send girls to school, especially at primary level.There are widespread reports <str<strong>on</strong>g>of</str<strong>on</strong>g> chang<strong>in</strong>g attitudes <strong>in</strong> many communities and <str<strong>on</strong>g>of</str<strong>on</strong>g> <strong>in</strong>creased enrolments<str<strong>on</strong>g>of</str<strong>on</strong>g> girls at primary and JSS level (Chege et al. 2008; Okojie 2008; Adediran 2010; Little and Lewis 2012;P<strong>in</strong>nock 2012; Dunne et al. 2013; Gabrscek and Usman 2013), although reliable statistical data to backup <str<strong>on</strong>g>the</str<strong>on</strong>g> claims are harder to come by, as most authors acknowledge. Some studies have presentedstatistical data; TEGINT, for example, claimed an overall 15% improvement <strong>in</strong> gender parity for primaryand junior enrolment and completi<strong>on</strong> <strong>in</strong> <str<strong>on</strong>g>the</str<strong>on</strong>g>ir project schools, and an <strong>in</strong>crease <str<strong>on</strong>g>of</str<strong>on</strong>g> 6% <strong>in</strong> primary schoolexam passes, enabl<strong>in</strong>g girls to transiti<strong>on</strong> to JSS (Acti<strong>on</strong>Aid 2012). Yet primary enrolment data for Bauchiand Kats<strong>in</strong>a (where TEGINT also took place) <strong>in</strong> <str<strong>on</strong>g>the</str<strong>on</strong>g> GEP II evaluati<strong>on</strong> show that, while girls’ enrolments <strong>in</strong>Bauchi <strong>in</strong>creased as a percentage <str<strong>on</strong>g>of</str<strong>on</strong>g> total enrolments from 41% <strong>in</strong> 2007/08 to 44% <strong>in</strong> 2010/11, totalenrolment for both girls and boys had decreased (UNICEF 2012). Moreover, <str<strong>on</strong>g>the</str<strong>on</strong>g>re was c<strong>on</strong>siderableEDOREN – Educati<strong>on</strong> Data, Research and Evaluati<strong>on</strong> <strong>in</strong> Nigeria 89
Review <str<strong>on</strong>g>of</str<strong>on</strong>g> <str<strong>on</strong>g>the</str<strong>on</strong>g> <str<strong>on</strong>g>literature</str<strong>on</strong>g> <strong>on</strong> <strong>basic</strong> educati<strong>on</strong> <strong>in</strong> Nigeriavariati<strong>on</strong> across <str<strong>on</strong>g>the</str<strong>on</strong>g> LGEAs and it was suggested that <str<strong>on</strong>g>the</str<strong>on</strong>g>re was likely to be a similar variati<strong>on</strong> acrossschools with<strong>in</strong> LGEAs (ibid.).While various strategies have reportedly helped to <strong>in</strong>crease girls’ enrolment – such as community dramaand use <str<strong>on</strong>g>of</str<strong>on</strong>g> billboards (Chege et al. 2008) – <str<strong>on</strong>g>the</str<strong>on</strong>g> active support <str<strong>on</strong>g>of</str<strong>on</strong>g> traditi<strong>on</strong>al and religious rulers has beenhighlighted above all as critical to success <strong>in</strong> chang<strong>in</strong>g attitudes toward girls’ educati<strong>on</strong> and mak<strong>in</strong>gth<strong>in</strong>gs happen (Chege et al. 2008; Okojie 2008; Adediran 2010; UNICEF 2012). SBMCs too have played animportant role <strong>in</strong> community mobilisati<strong>on</strong>, <strong>in</strong>clud<strong>in</strong>g rais<strong>in</strong>g funds for school improvement and girlfocusedmaterial support (Adediran 2010; Little and Lewis 2012; P<strong>in</strong>nock 2012; UNICEF, 2012; see alsoChapter 13).8.5.1 Strategies to assist girls’ participati<strong>on</strong>Strategies that seem to have helped girls’ participati<strong>on</strong> <strong>in</strong> school<strong>in</strong>g are discussed below:Increased female and youth representati<strong>on</strong> <strong>on</strong> SBMCsIncreased female representati<strong>on</strong> has been uneven, with some reports <str<strong>on</strong>g>of</str<strong>on</strong>g> SBMCs with up to 50% womenand o<str<strong>on</strong>g>the</str<strong>on</strong>g>rs with fewer than <str<strong>on</strong>g>the</str<strong>on</strong>g> stipulated number (Chege et al. 2008; Okojie 2008; Adediran 2010; Littleand Lewis 2012; P<strong>in</strong>nock 2012; UNICEF 2012; see also Secti<strong>on</strong> 13.4). Some studies claim women to be<strong>in</strong>creas<strong>in</strong>gly vocal and active <strong>in</strong> support<strong>in</strong>g girls’ educati<strong>on</strong> (e.g. Co<strong>in</strong>co 2012), while o<str<strong>on</strong>g>the</str<strong>on</strong>g>rs suggest thatgenerally women’s voices are still rarely heard (e.g. Little and Lewis 2012).Box 8.1 Women’s participati<strong>on</strong> <strong>on</strong> SBMCs‘The women <strong>in</strong> <str<strong>on</strong>g>the</str<strong>on</strong>g> SBMC are really work<strong>in</strong>g. They are do<strong>in</strong>g w<strong>on</strong>ders. They have visited most <str<strong>on</strong>g>of</str<strong>on</strong>g> <str<strong>on</strong>g>the</str<strong>on</strong>g>households <strong>in</strong> Abor, <strong>in</strong>clud<strong>in</strong>g <str<strong>on</strong>g>the</str<strong>on</strong>g> Igwe’s palace and <str<strong>on</strong>g>the</str<strong>on</strong>g> Churches. They visit homes, discuss<strong>in</strong>g withparents whose wards have challenges <strong>in</strong> school how to go about address<strong>in</strong>g identified problems. Theymake visits to school to m<strong>on</strong>itor <str<strong>on</strong>g>the</str<strong>on</strong>g> activities <str<strong>on</strong>g>of</str<strong>on</strong>g> both <str<strong>on</strong>g>the</str<strong>on</strong>g> pupils and <str<strong>on</strong>g>the</str<strong>on</strong>g> teachers. In December lastyear, <str<strong>on</strong>g>the</str<strong>on</strong>g>y were <strong>in</strong>strumental to <str<strong>on</strong>g>the</str<strong>on</strong>g> counterpart funds raised for <str<strong>on</strong>g>the</str<strong>on</strong>g> purchase <str<strong>on</strong>g>of</str<strong>on</strong>g> <str<strong>on</strong>g>the</str<strong>on</strong>g> water tank <str<strong>on</strong>g>the</str<strong>on</strong>g>yhave <strong>in</strong> <str<strong>on</strong>g>the</str<strong>on</strong>g> school. The women here have been us<strong>in</strong>g <str<strong>on</strong>g>the</str<strong>on</strong>g> ‘heart <str<strong>on</strong>g>of</str<strong>on</strong>g> a mo<str<strong>on</strong>g>the</str<strong>on</strong>g>r’ to cater for <str<strong>on</strong>g>the</str<strong>on</strong>g> school.There was a case <str<strong>on</strong>g>of</str<strong>on</strong>g> a family who brought two girls as house helps and refused <str<strong>on</strong>g>the</str<strong>on</strong>g>m go to school.When <str<strong>on</strong>g>the</str<strong>on</strong>g> women <strong>in</strong> <str<strong>on</strong>g>the</str<strong>on</strong>g> SBMC got w<strong>in</strong>d <str<strong>on</strong>g>of</str<strong>on</strong>g> this happen<strong>in</strong>g, <str<strong>on</strong>g>the</str<strong>on</strong>g>y immediately approached <str<strong>on</strong>g>the</str<strong>on</strong>g> family,and now <str<strong>on</strong>g>the</str<strong>on</strong>g> children are <strong>in</strong> school.’(Female CSO Programme Manager, Rural Community, Kwara).Source: Co<strong>in</strong>co (2012: 39)Aboliti<strong>on</strong> <str<strong>on</strong>g>of</str<strong>on</strong>g> school feesSchool fees for girls have been abolished <strong>in</strong> Jigawa State (Jigawa SMoE 2010).Material assistanceNumerous <strong>in</strong>itiatives by government and/or through m<strong>on</strong>ey raised by <str<strong>on</strong>g>the</str<strong>on</strong>g> SBMC or PTA committeeshave provided scholarships, c<strong>on</strong>diti<strong>on</strong>al cash transfers, provisi<strong>on</strong> <str<strong>on</strong>g>of</str<strong>on</strong>g> uniforms, sandals or textbooks forgirls (Chege et al. 2008; Adediran 2010; Jigawa SMoE 2010; Kano SMoE 2010; Dunne et al. 2013; ESSPIN2013b).Household mapp<strong>in</strong>gIn order to identify families with children <str<strong>on</strong>g>of</str<strong>on</strong>g> school-go<strong>in</strong>g age and persuade parents/guardians to send<str<strong>on</strong>g>the</str<strong>on</strong>g>ir children to school, some communities are attempt<strong>in</strong>g household mapp<strong>in</strong>g. In Bauchi State <str<strong>on</strong>g>the</str<strong>on</strong>g>yEDOREN – Educati<strong>on</strong> Data, Research and Evaluati<strong>on</strong> <strong>in</strong> Nigeria 90
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