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Review <strong>of</strong> <strong>the</strong> <strong>literature</strong> on basic education in Nigeria8.9 Issues arising and gaps in <strong>the</strong> evidenceThe FTTSS has supported <strong>the</strong> training <strong>of</strong> over 2,300 female trainees; <strong>the</strong>re is a need to track <strong>the</strong>m toassess <strong>the</strong>ir levels <strong>of</strong> commitment/attrition over two years and <strong>the</strong> impact in schools/communities ongirls’ education, as well as to establish <strong>the</strong> kind <strong>of</strong> support <strong>the</strong>y need to be successful.More generally, <strong>the</strong>re is a need to move beyond <strong>the</strong> gender parity approach (considering numbers <strong>of</strong>girls versus numbers <strong>of</strong> boys) and a focus on girls’ enrolment. Ra<strong>the</strong>r, gender needs to be conceptualisedas relational – as being about girls and boys – considering similarities and differences between andwithin gender categories. A more nuanced understanding <strong>of</strong> gender is needed that recognises thatpupils’ and teachers’ gender identities are differentiated by, and interact with, religion, ethnicity, age,socioeconomic status, sexuality, disability and location, for example.While <strong>the</strong> <strong>literature</strong> considers <strong>the</strong> constraints <strong>of</strong> cultural practices <strong>of</strong> Islam on girls’ schooling, <strong>the</strong>re isnothing on <strong>the</strong> impact <strong>of</strong> Christianity or ATR on girls’ participation, and very little on <strong>the</strong> way in whichethnicity or disability, for example, interact with gender and religion, except for two studies on Fulbenomadic pastoralists (see Usman 2006 and 2010). This emphasis on Islam and silence aroundChristianity and ATR is reflected more generally in <strong>the</strong> development <strong>literature</strong> in Nigeria (Nyemutu-Roberts et al. 2009).The specific difficulties particular groups <strong>of</strong> boys face, beyond those <strong>of</strong> almajirai, are <strong>of</strong>ten overlooked in<strong>the</strong> gender <strong>literature</strong>.Institutional analyses <strong>of</strong> gendered structures and processes need to be explored within an expandednotion <strong>of</strong> gender in different types <strong>of</strong> schools. How are <strong>the</strong>y similar or different in all-girls schools, allboysschools, in public and private schools, in boarding and day schools, or in IQTE schools, and in <strong>the</strong>colleges <strong>of</strong> education that train <strong>the</strong> next generation <strong>of</strong> teachers? There seems to be nothing outside <strong>of</strong>Bakari’s (2013) work at JSS level.A gender analysis <strong>of</strong> schools could usefully scrutinise: <strong>the</strong> gendered processes for teacher appointmentand promotion; <strong>the</strong> extent to which teacher and school duties (including <strong>the</strong> prefect and monitor systemand <strong>the</strong> arrangements for assemblies) reinforce or contest gender stereotypes and are equitable; <strong>the</strong>ways in which <strong>the</strong> disciplinary system promotes or contests violent masculinity as epitomised in corporalpunishment; <strong>the</strong> gendered expectations <strong>of</strong> teachers and pupils and <strong>the</strong> ways in which <strong>the</strong>se influenceclassroom interactions, subject choice and performance; and <strong>the</strong> formal and informal relations betweenand among staff and pupils/students.More in-depth ethnographic, qualitative research is needed to be able to capture such nuancedprocesses. Studies <strong>of</strong> this kind are currently lacking yet are essential to help unravel <strong>the</strong> complexprocesses that can perpetuate or challenge gender and o<strong>the</strong>r inequalities, which are intimately linked toissues <strong>of</strong> educational quality.Evidence Strength AssessmentQuality <strong>of</strong> evidence:Medium to HighSize <strong>of</strong> body <strong>of</strong>evidence:MediumConsistency <strong>of</strong> results:ConsistentOverall assessment:Medium to HighEDOREN – Education Data, Research and Evaluation in Nigeria 99
Review <strong>of</strong> <strong>the</strong> <strong>literature</strong> on basic education in NigeriaCHAPTER 9: OUT-OF-SCHOOL ISSUES AFFECTING ACCESS (‘pull factors’)9.1 IntroductionThe reasons children do not enrol or fail to persist or to achieve in school are <strong>of</strong>ten a combination <strong>of</strong> <strong>the</strong>‘pull factors’ related to home and/or community circumstances, lifestyles and cultures and <strong>the</strong> ‘pushfactors’ related to what goes on in schools. In this chapter we examine <strong>the</strong> <strong>literature</strong> on <strong>the</strong> ‘out-<strong>of</strong>school’factors located in homes and communities that affect school access, persistence and attainment,on which <strong>the</strong>re is a body <strong>of</strong> predominantly quantitative research. We draw in particular on <strong>the</strong> 2003 and2008 NDHS survey data and <strong>the</strong> associated 2004 and 2010 NEDS, as well as on <strong>the</strong> 2004 ESA (FME 2005).This chapter first considers <strong>the</strong> evidence on <strong>the</strong> demand for schooling before moving on to some <strong>of</strong> <strong>the</strong>out-<strong>of</strong>-school factors that inhibit educational participation, such as <strong>the</strong> direct and opportunity costs <strong>of</strong>schooling and issues concerning children’s health and that <strong>of</strong> <strong>the</strong>ir family. We <strong>the</strong>n explore <strong>the</strong> evidenceon <strong>the</strong> relationship between culture and formal education, particularly in regard to pastoral nomads,before briefly considering <strong>the</strong> impact <strong>of</strong> conflict on schooling.9.2 Demand for schoolingThe evidence on demand for schooling is not straightforward. On <strong>the</strong> one hand, as explained in Chapter2, EMIS figures show that over a four-year period (2006/07–2009/10) numbers <strong>of</strong> enrolments in publicprimary schools have declined overall, both for girls and boys (FME 2011b). This is also true at <strong>the</strong> zonallevel except for <strong>the</strong> North West, where numbers have increased consistently each year. The AnnualStatistical Digest 2006–2010 also shows that at <strong>the</strong> state level <strong>the</strong> picture is more mixed; for example,within North Central, Kogi State has shown a steady increase in enrolments whereas Kwara Stateenrolments have dropped by around one-third over <strong>the</strong> four-year period. National figures for privateprimary schooling, however, show increases for both girls and boys but when both private and publicfigures are combined <strong>the</strong>y still show an overall decrease in enrolments for girls and boys (FME 2011b).This might perhaps not tell <strong>the</strong> whole story since unregistered private schools, <strong>of</strong> which <strong>the</strong>re are many,are not counted in statistics.Moreover, plenty <strong>of</strong> qualitative data (e.g. Adediran 2010; Pinnock 2012, UNICEF 2012) suggest thatdemand is soaring, especially for girls in nor<strong>the</strong>rn Nigeria, as a result <strong>of</strong> successful social mobilisationcampaigns and development interventions. This may well be <strong>the</strong> case in areas where governmentcampaigns have been successful and development programmes are taking place (although reliablestatistical data to support <strong>the</strong> claims are hard to come by) and it is perhaps in o<strong>the</strong>r areas wherecampaigns have not taken place, or development programmes have not been initiated, that numbersare dropping. Again, however, this is speculation.The 2010 NEDS (NPC and RTI International 2011), when compared to <strong>the</strong> 2004 NEDS (NPC and ORCMacro 2004), suggests that school attendance patterns have not changed much over time. Similarly, <strong>the</strong>disparities discussed in Chapter 2 remain, with lower attendance in <strong>the</strong> poorer, rural, nor<strong>the</strong>rn areas forMuslim girls, above all, and higher attendance in <strong>the</strong> more urban, sou<strong>the</strong>rn regions.In contrast, according to EMIS figures, at JSS level enrolments have risen in public schools in <strong>the</strong> fouryearperiod across all zones, although overall numbers are much lower than at primary level. It may bethat some <strong>of</strong> <strong>the</strong> pupils from <strong>the</strong> private system are re-joining <strong>the</strong> state system to boost numbers,although this is speculation since EMIS returns from private schools are very incomplete.Increased numbers <strong>of</strong> nomadic schools and <strong>the</strong> reported increase in IQTE (see Chapter 7) also suggest anincreasing demand for schooling among groups who historically have been wary <strong>of</strong> secular schooling.EDOREN – Education Data, Research and Evaluation in Nigeria 100
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