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Review <strong>of</strong> <strong>the</strong> <strong>literature</strong> on basic education in NigeriaGaps in research: school quality – teaching and learningA substantial body <strong>of</strong> research has consistently documented many <strong>of</strong> <strong>the</strong> features <strong>of</strong> classroom teachingand learning that characterise <strong>the</strong> generally poor quality <strong>of</strong> teaching and learning in many Nigerianschools. Some <strong>of</strong> <strong>the</strong>se features relate to difficult teaching conditions and lack <strong>of</strong> infrastructural andteaching resources but more <strong>of</strong>ten <strong>the</strong> reasons lie with inadequate teacher preparation, motivationand/or supervision.Studies are needed that look more at <strong>the</strong> classroom processes and that identify <strong>the</strong> specific features thataid or hinder teaching and learning, with more use <strong>of</strong> classroom observation that goes beyond merelyquantifying particular behaviours. Studies also need to seek pupil and teacher views on particular issues.What do pupils think helps <strong>the</strong>m to learn or prevents <strong>the</strong>m from learning in class? What are <strong>the</strong>teaching techniques <strong>the</strong>y find useful? What are <strong>the</strong> classroom conditions, both physical and social, tha<strong>the</strong>lp pupils learn? What are <strong>the</strong> out-<strong>of</strong>-school (e.g. hunger, ill health, etc.) and in-school factors (e.g.MOI, overcrowded classrooms, classroom peer relations, etc.) that have an impact on pupil learning andhow do <strong>the</strong>y interrelate?The MOI is a vital area for research but studies need to go beyond asking respondents for <strong>the</strong>ir languagepreferences, which has predominantly been <strong>the</strong> research focus so far. Observational studies are neededthat establish which languages are actually used in <strong>the</strong> classroom and in what ways, in both (relatively)monolingual and multilingual settings. What impact does this have on learning? How does <strong>the</strong> MOIaffect teacher pedagogy? How is code-switching used to facilitate learning? How are different languagesused to include or exclude learners? How do teachers adapt teaching in multilingual settings? How dominority-language speakers cope in <strong>the</strong> classroom? What is textbook availability in different languages?To what extent and in what ways does <strong>the</strong> teacher help pupils understand English-language textbooksby code-switching?Teacher–pupil and pupil–peer relations and pupil wellbeing are critical to creating a conduciveenvironment for learning. What are <strong>the</strong> features <strong>of</strong> teacher–pupil relations that produce a good learningenvironment? How do issues <strong>of</strong> gender and culture affect <strong>the</strong>se classroom relations? How couldidentified difficulties be addressed? In what ways do teachers interact with pupils outside class thatimpact positively on pupil wellbeing and enthusiasm for learning? What are <strong>the</strong> features <strong>of</strong> positive peerinteractions? What kinds <strong>of</strong> peer interactions are having a detrimental effect on learning? Who isaffected? What could be done to improve <strong>the</strong> situation?Teachers’ two main teaching aids (beyond <strong>the</strong>mselves) are <strong>the</strong> chalk board and <strong>the</strong> textbook. How are<strong>the</strong>se teaching aids, where available, being used to facilitate learning? How could teachers improve <strong>the</strong>iruse <strong>of</strong> <strong>the</strong>se teaching aids? How do successful teachers manage to adapt <strong>the</strong> use <strong>of</strong> textbooks in <strong>the</strong>irteaching in relation to textbook shortages? To what extent does <strong>the</strong> language in which <strong>the</strong> textbook iswritten have an impact on <strong>the</strong> way it is used and/or its effectiveness?Research is needed into what goes on in terms <strong>of</strong> teaching and learning in IQTE and nomadic schools. Inwhat ways are <strong>the</strong> processes similar to and/or different from regular public schools? What can regularschools learn from IQTE or nomadic schools that would help improve school quality (and vice versa)?How do gender issues play out and affect learning?The 2004 ESA and <strong>the</strong> PTTE talked about <strong>the</strong> need for schools to educate <strong>the</strong> whole child, and not justfocus on academic attainment. What o<strong>the</strong>r types <strong>of</strong> learning are going on in schools? How could <strong>the</strong>sebe fur<strong>the</strong>r enhanced?How is inclusion being managed in schools in terms <strong>of</strong> access and quality? What are teachers, headteachers and pupils’ understandings <strong>of</strong> inclusion? What are schools actively doing to promote it? Whatare <strong>the</strong> obstacles to implementing inclusive practices in school? How could <strong>the</strong>y be addressed?EDOREN – Education Data, Research and Evaluation in Nigeria 159
Review <strong>of</strong> <strong>the</strong> <strong>literature</strong> on basic education in NigeriaGaps in research: school quality – teacher education and supervision to support teaching andlearning qualityResearch on teaching quality also needs complementary research on teacher education (both in-serviceand pre-service) and supervision. This <strong>review</strong> has shown that <strong>the</strong> response to poor-quality schoolteaching has <strong>of</strong>ten been to increase in-service training and qualification upgrading. On <strong>the</strong> whole,however, <strong>the</strong>re is little available research evidence to suggest that this has helped improve teachingquality, o<strong>the</strong>r than teachers saying that it has. Given that <strong>the</strong>re has also been widespread criticism <strong>of</strong>teacher education, more detailed research is needed to establish what goes on in teacher educationinstitutions and in in-service training and school inspection and supervision that helps or hindersimprovements in teaching quality.What happens in distance teacher education? How does it compare with face-to-face teachereducation? How do NCE and PGDE preparations compare? The Grade II teaching qualification has beensaid by some to have been a better gauge <strong>of</strong> teaching competence than <strong>the</strong> current NCE; if so, whatwere <strong>the</strong> specific features <strong>of</strong> that qualification that helped prepare teachers better for <strong>the</strong> classroom?What are teachers doing in <strong>the</strong> classroom that demonstrates <strong>the</strong> effectiveness or not <strong>of</strong> particular types<strong>of</strong> teacher education?Studies are needed that track trainee teachers through college, teaching practice, and <strong>the</strong>n into schoolas newly qualified teachers. To what extent are <strong>the</strong> colleges/universities preparing trainees for <strong>the</strong>realities <strong>of</strong> <strong>the</strong> classroom and school life? To what extent and in what ways do <strong>the</strong>y help studentsacquire subject knowledge? What are <strong>the</strong> students’ learning experiences and difficulties incollege/university? How do <strong>the</strong> teacher education institutions help students to adapt to schoolsafterwards? What type <strong>of</strong> support is given at each stage by <strong>the</strong> college/university and/or school andhow could it be improved? What kind <strong>of</strong> supervision/support is given variously by o<strong>the</strong>r school staff,head teachers, local government school supervisors, and o<strong>the</strong>r state or federal school inspectors? Howcould it be improved?What kinds <strong>of</strong> ‘good practice’ exist in terms <strong>of</strong> good intra-school and inter-school support (e.g. inclusters, mentoring programmes, etc.) for teachers by o<strong>the</strong>r teachers or <strong>the</strong> head teacher? Whatfeatures <strong>of</strong> such programmes have a positive effect on teaching quality?Research suggests that teachers are unaware <strong>of</strong> and/or unwilling to admit to <strong>the</strong>ir own part, and that <strong>of</strong><strong>the</strong> school more generally, in pupil/student failure to learn. Positive reports on earlier action-researchprojects in a number <strong>of</strong> states (Adekola 2007) suggest that action research might be a productivemethodology to encourage teachers (and schools) to reflect more critically on <strong>the</strong>ir practices, anddevelop school quality improvement from within.The research evidence indicates low levels <strong>of</strong> teacher pr<strong>of</strong>essionalism on <strong>the</strong> part <strong>of</strong> some teachers (e.g.absenteeism, unsanctioned or unregulated corporal punishment, etc.). What are <strong>the</strong> disciplinaryprocedures and o<strong>the</strong>r practices that are helping to improve levels <strong>of</strong> teacher pr<strong>of</strong>essionalism? What roleare head teachers, <strong>the</strong> LGEA and/or state <strong>of</strong>ficials playing in this? What roles do <strong>the</strong> TRCN, TIP and TDCplay and how do <strong>the</strong>y interact with SUBEBs and LGEAs? How are PTAs, SBMCs and o<strong>the</strong>r communityorganisations involved in improving teacher pr<strong>of</strong>essionalism? What are <strong>the</strong> conditions that supporthigher levels <strong>of</strong> teacher pr<strong>of</strong>essionalism?Gaps in research: school quality – o<strong>the</strong>r issuesWhat is <strong>the</strong> relationship between school choice and school quality? Research indicates that parents areincreasingly choosing to send <strong>the</strong>ir children to private institutions, especially in urban areas, because<strong>the</strong>se schools are perceived to be better quality. Research is needed to look at how this plays out inparticular community contexts. Where <strong>the</strong>re are multiple different education providers available in oneEDOREN – Education Data, Research and Evaluation in Nigeria 160
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