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Review <strong>of</strong> <strong>the</strong> <strong>literature</strong> on basic education in NigeriaFear <strong>of</strong> <strong>the</strong> lawIn some states (e.g. Niger) it is against <strong>the</strong> law to withdraw a girl from school for marriage. Ra<strong>the</strong>r thanrisk a fine or imprisonment for withdrawal, some parents/guardians prefer not to send <strong>the</strong>ir daughter toschool in <strong>the</strong> first place (Okojie 2008).8.3.2 School-related issuesDistance from schoolThis issue is especially pertinent in some rural areas and particularly at JSS level as <strong>the</strong>re are fewerschools (Okojie 2008; ActionAid 2011; NPC and RTI International 2011; UNICEF 2012). For girls, <strong>the</strong>concerns about <strong>the</strong> distance to school may also be related to concern about <strong>the</strong>ir safety on <strong>the</strong> way toand from school (Antonowicz et al. 2010; UNICEF 2012).Corporal punishmentWhile corporal punishment and fear <strong>of</strong> corporal punishment affect both girls and boys, girls in particularare affected by <strong>the</strong> shame <strong>of</strong> being beaten in public, which can result in absenteeism, withdrawal and/ordropout from school (ActionAid 2011; British Council 2012; Dunne et al. 2013).Water and sanitationThe provision <strong>of</strong> safe, clean gender-segregated toilets and clean water, which is also related to ill health(ActionAid 2011; Bakari 2013), is a concern. For example, in 2005 only 40% <strong>of</strong> schools had toilets(Theobald et al. 2007).School dutiesGender-stereotyped duties for staff and pupils and female subordination in <strong>the</strong> prefect system areissues (Bakari 2013; Dunne et al. 2013), although it should be noted that Bakari’s study showed girls andboys sharing most duties.Lack <strong>of</strong> female teachersThere is a lack <strong>of</strong> female teachers, especially in rural areas (Okojie 2008; ActionAid 2011; Okojie 2012;UNICEF 2012). In one LGEA in Bauchi State, for example, 84% <strong>of</strong> primary schools have no femaleteachers at all (UNICEF 2012).Female teachers are sometimes seen as ‘role models’ for girls’ educational aspirations (Okojie 2008;USAID 2009; ActionAid 2011; Okojie 2012), but see <strong>the</strong> relevant sub-section in Section 8.5 for fur<strong>the</strong>rdiscussion <strong>of</strong> <strong>the</strong> issue.Limited classroom participationOne classroom-based observational study in seven states found that boys are on average twice as likelyto be asked a question as girls (Hardman et al. 2008), although as o<strong>the</strong>r research in Africa (e.g. Dunne etal. 2005) has shown this may still mean that many boys as well as girls have no questions directed at<strong>the</strong>m.Gendered expectations and gender stereotypingThe gendered expectations <strong>of</strong> teachers and pupils (e.g. presuming some girls to be passive and ‘shy’ andbetter at so-called ‘feminine’ arts subjects ra<strong>the</strong>r than Maths and Science) perpetuate genderEDOREN – Education Data, Research and Evaluation in Nigeria 87
Review <strong>of</strong> <strong>the</strong> <strong>literature</strong> on basic education in Nigeriastereotypes that can limit girls’ experiences and potential achievements (Para-Mallam 2010; Bakari2013; Dunne et al. 2013). Indeed, such stereotyping can also limit boys’ experiences (Dunne et al. 2013).Textbooks and curriculaThe gender stereotyping and underrepresentation <strong>of</strong> females and female experiences and <strong>the</strong> use <strong>of</strong>gender-insensitive language found in some textbooks sends powerful gender messages to pupils (Para-Mallam 2010; Samuel 2012; Bakari 2013).8.4 Gender violenceGender violence is a key concern that can ‘inhibit girls’ access to schooling, may result in poorperformance at school and deprives society <strong>of</strong> <strong>the</strong> full participation <strong>of</strong> women in development’ (Osakue2006: 3). Although a serious issue, and one that is prevalent in educational institutions worldwide in oneform or ano<strong>the</strong>r (see Leach and Mitchell 2006), it is <strong>of</strong>ten not discussed, is underreported and/or denied(Adelabu 2005; FME 2007b; ActionAid 2011; Dunne et al. 2013).8.4.1 Understandings <strong>of</strong> gender violenceThe term ‘gender violence’ (or <strong>the</strong> more commonly used ‘gender-based violence’) is frequently used in<strong>the</strong> narrow sense <strong>of</strong> violence by males against females, and <strong>of</strong>ten with <strong>the</strong> emphasis on sexual violence.This is <strong>the</strong> understanding in most <strong>of</strong> <strong>the</strong> studies <strong>review</strong>ed in this section. However, <strong>the</strong> term can alsoinclude issues such as corporal punishment, verbal abuse, bullying and ‘teasing’; fur<strong>the</strong>rmore, it caninclude violence among females, among males, and by females on males (see, for example, Dunne et al.2006). However, most <strong>of</strong> <strong>the</strong> studies in Nigeria (and indeed in many o<strong>the</strong>r countries) on <strong>the</strong>se less <strong>of</strong>tenrecognised aspects <strong>of</strong> gender violence have not been researched within an understanding <strong>of</strong> gender(although <strong>the</strong>y have generally provided gender-disaggregated data). As a result, <strong>the</strong>y are discussedseparately in sections 4.6 and 4.7 on teacher–pupil and pupil–pupil relations in <strong>the</strong> classroom, and inChapter 12 on pupil management.8.4.2 Sexual violenceJust as it is explicitly recognised in <strong>the</strong> National Policy on Gender in Basic Education (FME 2007a), so it isalso widely known that sexual violence, which includes sexual harassment, occurs in schools.Specifically, <strong>the</strong>re are major safety concerns about female pupils and teachers being harassed andabused verbally, emotionally and/or physically or sexually (including rape) ei<strong>the</strong>r on <strong>the</strong> way to and fromschool or in school itself. Both male teachers and pupils have been implicated (FME 2005; FME 2007b;Para-Mallam 2010; ActionAid 2011; British Council 2012; Bakari 2013; Dunne et al. 2013), as well aso<strong>the</strong>r authority figures including religious instructors (Para-Mallam 2010). Similarly, sexual harassmentand violence against female trainee teachers has been reported in colleges <strong>of</strong> education (Leach andBakari 2008; UNICEF 2012).Although a serious issue, and one that is prevalent in educational institutions worldwide in one form orano<strong>the</strong>r (see Leach and Mitchell 2006), it is rarely acknowledged and/or is underreported (Adelabu2005; FME 2007b; ActionAid 2011; Dunne et al. 2013).On <strong>the</strong> way to school bus drivers, okada riders and school boys have also been found to verbally abuseschool girls with comments laced with sexual innuendo (ActionAid 2004, cited in Antonowicz et al.2010). The same study noted that girls’ fear <strong>of</strong> sexual harassment combined with verbal abuse from(some) boys and male teachers resulted in a lack <strong>of</strong> trust between classmates. Some girls also feltculpable in some way (ibid.).EDOREN – Education Data, Research and Evaluation in Nigeria 88
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