Review <str<strong>on</strong>g>of</str<strong>on</strong>g> <str<strong>on</strong>g>the</str<strong>on</strong>g> <str<strong>on</strong>g>literature</str<strong>on</strong>g> <strong>on</strong> <strong>basic</strong> educati<strong>on</strong> <strong>in</strong> NigeriaCHAPTER 13: COMMUNITY INVOLVEMENT IN SCHOOLING13.1 Introducti<strong>on</strong>Increas<strong>in</strong>g community <strong>in</strong>volvement <strong>in</strong> school<strong>in</strong>g is a key strategy <strong>in</strong> decentralised governance, whichaims to help improve <str<strong>on</strong>g>the</str<strong>on</strong>g> quality <str<strong>on</strong>g>of</str<strong>on</strong>g> educati<strong>on</strong>, to improve school accountability, and to share <str<strong>on</strong>g>the</str<strong>on</strong>g>f<strong>in</strong>ancial burden <str<strong>on</strong>g>of</str<strong>on</strong>g> educati<strong>on</strong>. A <str<strong>on</strong>g>review</str<strong>on</strong>g> <str<strong>on</strong>g>of</str<strong>on</strong>g> research with<strong>in</strong> SSA (and elsewhere) has shown thatcommunity participati<strong>on</strong> works well <strong>in</strong> <str<strong>on</strong>g>the</str<strong>on</strong>g> rare <strong>in</strong>stances where <str<strong>on</strong>g>the</str<strong>on</strong>g>re is good understand<strong>in</strong>g andrelati<strong>on</strong>s between schools, communities and local educati<strong>on</strong>al authorities and a genu<strong>in</strong>e commitment tocommunity decisi<strong>on</strong>-mak<strong>in</strong>g (Dunne et al. 2007; see, for example, Academy for Educati<strong>on</strong>alDevelopment (2002) and De Grauwe et al. (2005) <strong>on</strong> some countries <strong>in</strong> West Africa).Most <str<strong>on</strong>g>of</str<strong>on</strong>g> <str<strong>on</strong>g>the</str<strong>on</strong>g> <str<strong>on</strong>g>literature</str<strong>on</strong>g> <str<strong>on</strong>g>review</str<strong>on</strong>g>ed <strong>in</strong> this secti<strong>on</strong> derives from d<strong>on</strong>or-supported <strong>in</strong>itiatives <strong>in</strong> nor<str<strong>on</strong>g>the</str<strong>on</strong>g>rnNigeria <strong>in</strong>volv<strong>in</strong>g UNICEF, USAID (COMPASS), and DFID (ESSPIN and GEP), all <strong>in</strong>volv<strong>in</strong>g formal community<strong>in</strong>volvement through <str<strong>on</strong>g>the</str<strong>on</strong>g> PTAs and SBMCs. The 2004 ESA also reports survey f<strong>in</strong>d<strong>in</strong>gs from across <str<strong>on</strong>g>the</str<strong>on</strong>g>country <strong>on</strong> community and school relati<strong>on</strong>s and <strong>in</strong>volvement (FME 2005).Formal community <strong>in</strong>volvement <strong>in</strong> public school<strong>in</strong>g <strong>in</strong> Nigeria primarily occurs through PTAs and, to alesser extent, SBMCs, although numerous organisati<strong>on</strong>s and <strong>in</strong>dividuals have been found to supportschools, <str<strong>on</strong>g>of</str<strong>on</strong>g>ten focused around different ethnic or religious groups, occupati<strong>on</strong>s or <strong>in</strong>terests, ortraditi<strong>on</strong>al leaders (Poulsen, 2009). At <str<strong>on</strong>g>the</str<strong>on</strong>g> same time, however, some CSOs have come <strong>in</strong> for criticism fornot support<strong>in</strong>g educati<strong>on</strong> sufficiently (Ant<strong>on</strong><strong>in</strong>is 2010).After c<strong>on</strong>sider<strong>in</strong>g community–school relati<strong>on</strong>s <strong>in</strong> general, <str<strong>on</strong>g>the</str<strong>on</strong>g> chapter goes <strong>on</strong> to look at PTAs and <str<strong>on</strong>g>the</str<strong>on</strong>g>nSBMCs <strong>in</strong> more detail.13.2 Community–school relati<strong>on</strong>sSeveral studies give examples <str<strong>on</strong>g>of</str<strong>on</strong>g> positive efforts to support schools by community organisati<strong>on</strong>s and/orCSOs (see Urwick 2002; FME 2005; Sherry 2008; Poulsen 2009; Little and Lewis 2012; P<strong>in</strong>nock 2012), andcommunities have <str<strong>on</strong>g>of</str<strong>on</strong>g>ten been found to be supportive <str<strong>on</strong>g>of</str<strong>on</strong>g> schools and appreciative <str<strong>on</strong>g>of</str<strong>on</strong>g> staff hav<strong>in</strong>g to work<strong>in</strong> difficult circumstances and for low pay (Boult<strong>on</strong> et al. 2009; Dunne et al. 2013). In <str<strong>on</strong>g>the</str<strong>on</strong>g> 2004 ESA, 74%<str<strong>on</strong>g>of</str<strong>on</strong>g> school resp<strong>on</strong>dents described school–community relati<strong>on</strong>s as ‘cordial’ (FME 2005).However, studies have also highlighted tensi<strong>on</strong>s between schools and communities; <strong>in</strong> <str<strong>on</strong>g>the</str<strong>on</strong>g> 2004 ESA 3%<str<strong>on</strong>g>of</str<strong>on</strong>g> schools typified <str<strong>on</strong>g>the</str<strong>on</strong>g>ir relati<strong>on</strong>s with communities as ‘hostile’ (FME 2005). Al<strong>on</strong>g with more specificareas <str<strong>on</strong>g>of</str<strong>on</strong>g> c<strong>on</strong>flict (elaborated <strong>on</strong> below), <str<strong>on</strong>g>the</str<strong>on</strong>g>re are more fundamental attitud<strong>in</strong>al issues. School staff, localgovernment <str<strong>on</strong>g>of</str<strong>on</strong>g>ficials, PTA or SBMC and community leaders have been found to hold negative views <str<strong>on</strong>g>of</str<strong>on</strong>g>parents, especially those whose children are not enrolled <strong>in</strong> school or whose attendance is sporadic.They variously claim that such parents do not value educati<strong>on</strong> or are ‘ignorant’ or not ‘enlightened’(Sherry 2008; P<strong>in</strong>nock 2012; Little and Lewis 2012; Dunne et al. 2013).Thus, communicati<strong>on</strong> between schools and communities has tended to be unidirecti<strong>on</strong>al and top down,with schools (sometimes toge<str<strong>on</strong>g>the</str<strong>on</strong>g>r with <str<strong>on</strong>g>the</str<strong>on</strong>g> LGEA) tell<strong>in</strong>g parents what to do and dem<strong>on</strong>strat<strong>in</strong>g a lack <str<strong>on</strong>g>of</str<strong>on</strong>g>understand<strong>in</strong>g about <str<strong>on</strong>g>the</str<strong>on</strong>g> reas<strong>on</strong>s that may prevent parents from send<strong>in</strong>g <str<strong>on</strong>g>the</str<strong>on</strong>g>ir children to school(Poulsen 2009; P<strong>in</strong>nock 2012; Little and Lewis 2012), which may <str<strong>on</strong>g>of</str<strong>on</strong>g> course <strong>in</strong>clude c<strong>on</strong>cerns about <str<strong>on</strong>g>the</str<strong>on</strong>g>quality <str<strong>on</strong>g>of</str<strong>on</strong>g> educati<strong>on</strong> <strong>on</strong> <str<strong>on</strong>g>of</str<strong>on</strong>g>fer (Dunne et al. 2013). Community voice has been noted to be particularlystr<strong>on</strong>g <strong>in</strong> Islamiyya schools, and it has been suggested that this is perhaps because <str<strong>on</strong>g>the</str<strong>on</strong>g>y are communityowned and because school development is driven by a moral and religious commitment (Boult<strong>on</strong> et al.2009).As highlighted earlier, although SBMCs have generally been credited with improv<strong>in</strong>g relati<strong>on</strong>s betweenschools and communities (as well as with LGEAs), <str<strong>on</strong>g>the</str<strong>on</strong>g>y have also been implicated <strong>in</strong> this negativeEDOREN – Educati<strong>on</strong> Data, Research and Evaluati<strong>on</strong> <strong>in</strong> Nigeria 145
Review <str<strong>on</strong>g>of</str<strong>on</strong>g> <str<strong>on</strong>g>the</str<strong>on</strong>g> <str<strong>on</strong>g>literature</str<strong>on</strong>g> <strong>on</strong> <strong>basic</strong> educati<strong>on</strong> <strong>in</strong> Nigeriaattitude toward some parents, with reports <str<strong>on</strong>g>of</str<strong>on</strong>g> SBMCs f<strong>in</strong><strong>in</strong>g parents who send children to herd cattle,deny<strong>in</strong>g Fulani herdsman access to water, and ask<strong>in</strong>g <str<strong>on</strong>g>the</str<strong>on</strong>g> police to arrest parents who do not send <str<strong>on</strong>g>the</str<strong>on</strong>g>irchildren to school (Little and Lewis 2012; P<strong>in</strong>nock 2012). More specifically, teachers <str<strong>on</strong>g>of</str<strong>on</strong>g>ten <strong>in</strong>terpretparents’ lack <str<strong>on</strong>g>of</str<strong>on</strong>g> attendance at meet<strong>in</strong>gs or engagement with <str<strong>on</strong>g>the</str<strong>on</strong>g> school about <str<strong>on</strong>g>the</str<strong>on</strong>g>ir children/wards as<strong>in</strong>dicative <str<strong>on</strong>g>of</str<strong>on</strong>g> a lack <str<strong>on</strong>g>of</str<strong>on</strong>g> <strong>in</strong>terest, whereas it may <strong>in</strong>stead be due to lack <str<strong>on</strong>g>of</str<strong>on</strong>g> time (Dunne et al. 2013).In additi<strong>on</strong> to school compla<strong>in</strong>ts about parents not send<strong>in</strong>g children to school, <str<strong>on</strong>g>the</str<strong>on</strong>g>re have been tensi<strong>on</strong>sc<strong>on</strong>cern<strong>in</strong>g: community encroachment <strong>on</strong> school land, such as for c<strong>on</strong>structi<strong>on</strong> or dump<strong>in</strong>g <str<strong>on</strong>g>of</str<strong>on</strong>g> waste;access routes; driv<strong>in</strong>g vehicles or herd<strong>in</strong>g animals across <str<strong>on</strong>g>the</str<strong>on</strong>g> school; and use <str<strong>on</strong>g>of</str<strong>on</strong>g> school property for drugtak<strong>in</strong>g,dr<strong>in</strong>k<strong>in</strong>g or vandalism by community youths (Boult<strong>on</strong> et al. 2009; P<strong>in</strong>nock 2012; UBEC 2012a;Dunne et al. 2013).C<strong>on</strong>versely, parents and community members <str<strong>on</strong>g>of</str<strong>on</strong>g>ten see teachers as lack<strong>in</strong>g <str<strong>on</strong>g>the</str<strong>on</strong>g> requisite qualificati<strong>on</strong>s,commitment and pr<str<strong>on</strong>g>of</str<strong>on</strong>g>essi<strong>on</strong>alism (Sherry 2008; Dunne et al. 2013), with teacher absenteeism andexcessive corporal punishment be<strong>in</strong>g major sources <str<strong>on</strong>g>of</str<strong>on</strong>g> parental compla<strong>in</strong>t (Sherry 2008; Little and Lewis2012; P<strong>in</strong>nock 2012; Dunne et al. 2013).13.3 Parent–teacher associati<strong>on</strong>sPTAs are <str<strong>on</strong>g>the</str<strong>on</strong>g> most established CBOs c<strong>on</strong>nected to schools, provid<strong>in</strong>g an important l<strong>in</strong>k between <str<strong>on</strong>g>the</str<strong>on</strong>g>school and community. In particular, <str<strong>on</strong>g>the</str<strong>on</strong>g>y:Provide a lot <str<strong>on</strong>g>of</str<strong>on</strong>g> material support, particularly <strong>in</strong> f<strong>in</strong>anc<strong>in</strong>g and/or provid<strong>in</strong>g labour for <str<strong>on</strong>g>the</str<strong>on</strong>g>c<strong>on</strong>structi<strong>on</strong> and ma<strong>in</strong>tenance <str<strong>on</strong>g>of</str<strong>on</strong>g> school build<strong>in</strong>gs (FME 2005; Theobald et al. 2007; Dunne et al.2013); Recruit and pay for teachers (Theobald et al. 2007; Dunne et al. 2013); Provide learn<strong>in</strong>g materials (FME 2005; Theobald et al. 2007);Provide a means <str<strong>on</strong>g>of</str<strong>on</strong>g> communicati<strong>on</strong> (and sometimes mediati<strong>on</strong>) between <str<strong>on</strong>g>the</str<strong>on</strong>g> school and <str<strong>on</strong>g>the</str<strong>on</strong>g>community (Dunne et al. 2013); andProvide <str<strong>on</strong>g>the</str<strong>on</strong>g> <strong>on</strong>ly f<strong>in</strong>ancial <strong>in</strong>come for some schools <strong>in</strong> <str<strong>on</strong>g>the</str<strong>on</strong>g> form <str<strong>on</strong>g>of</str<strong>on</strong>g> termly levies and o<str<strong>on</strong>g>the</str<strong>on</strong>g>r ad hocfees (Poulsen 2009; Ant<strong>on</strong><strong>in</strong>is 2010).In c<strong>on</strong>trast, PTAs have comparatively little <strong>in</strong>volvement <strong>in</strong> school management (Urwick and Aliyu 2003;Theobald et al. 2007; Poulsen 2009; Dunne et al. 2013), although <strong>in</strong> <str<strong>on</strong>g>the</str<strong>on</strong>g> 2004 ESA 14% <str<strong>on</strong>g>of</str<strong>on</strong>g> school returnssaid that PTAs helped with school adm<strong>in</strong>istrati<strong>on</strong> (FME 2005). That said, it is not known <strong>in</strong> what type <str<strong>on</strong>g>of</str<strong>on</strong>g>school (private, Islamiyya, etc.) this occurred or what it entailed.Termly PTA levies f<strong>in</strong>ance <str<strong>on</strong>g>the</str<strong>on</strong>g> PTA’s activities, although s<strong>in</strong>ce <str<strong>on</strong>g>the</str<strong>on</strong>g> legislati<strong>on</strong> for free UBE <str<strong>on</strong>g>the</str<strong>on</strong>g>se havebeen banned <strong>in</strong> many states. Never<str<strong>on</strong>g>the</str<strong>on</strong>g>less, <str<strong>on</strong>g>the</str<strong>on</strong>g>y are still widespread (FME 2005; L<strong>in</strong>cove 2009; NPC andRTI Internati<strong>on</strong>al 2011) and for many schools that do not receive LGEA fund<strong>in</strong>g <str<strong>on</strong>g>the</str<strong>on</strong>g>y are <str<strong>on</strong>g>of</str<strong>on</strong>g>ten <str<strong>on</strong>g>the</str<strong>on</strong>g> <strong>on</strong>lysource <str<strong>on</strong>g>of</str<strong>on</strong>g> <strong>in</strong>come (Poulsen 2009; Ant<strong>on</strong><strong>in</strong>is 2010). Importantly, a percentage <str<strong>on</strong>g>of</str<strong>on</strong>g> <str<strong>on</strong>g>the</str<strong>on</strong>g> levy sometimes goesto <str<strong>on</strong>g>the</str<strong>on</strong>g> LGEA and state educati<strong>on</strong> board (Poulsen 2009).At <str<strong>on</strong>g>the</str<strong>on</strong>g> same time, however, PTA levies are a f<strong>in</strong>ancial burden <strong>on</strong> many families (Poulsen 2009; NPC andRTI Internati<strong>on</strong>al 2011), and <str<strong>on</strong>g>the</str<strong>on</strong>g>refore a cause <str<strong>on</strong>g>of</str<strong>on</strong>g> n<strong>on</strong>-enrolment or dropout for children from poorfamilies (Acti<strong>on</strong>Aid 2011; Dunne et al. 2013; see also Secti<strong>on</strong> 9.3). N<strong>on</strong>-payment <str<strong>on</strong>g>of</str<strong>on</strong>g> levies can also result<strong>in</strong> punishment or exclusi<strong>on</strong> <str<strong>on</strong>g>of</str<strong>on</strong>g> <str<strong>on</strong>g>the</str<strong>on</strong>g> child from school, which <strong>in</strong> turn can result <strong>in</strong> absenteeism or dropout(FME 2005; Co<strong>in</strong>co 2012). In <str<strong>on</strong>g>the</str<strong>on</strong>g> 2004 ESA survey, over a quarter <str<strong>on</strong>g>of</str<strong>on</strong>g> pupils said that had been sent awayfrom school at some stage for n<strong>on</strong>-payment <str<strong>on</strong>g>of</str<strong>on</strong>g> school levies (FME 2005).O<str<strong>on</strong>g>the</str<strong>on</strong>g>r criticisms <str<strong>on</strong>g>of</str<strong>on</strong>g> PTAs <strong>in</strong>clude: Political <strong>in</strong>terference (Poulsen 2009);EDOREN – Educati<strong>on</strong> Data, Research and Evaluati<strong>on</strong> <strong>in</strong> Nigeria 146
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