Review <str<strong>on</strong>g>of</str<strong>on</strong>g> <str<strong>on</strong>g>the</str<strong>on</strong>g> <str<strong>on</strong>g>literature</str<strong>on</strong>g> <strong>on</strong> <strong>basic</strong> educati<strong>on</strong> <strong>in</strong> Nigeria9.7.1 Nomadic lifestylesThe pastoralist Hausa-Fulani are <strong>in</strong>creas<strong>in</strong>gly be<strong>in</strong>g forced to adapt ei<str<strong>on</strong>g>the</str<strong>on</strong>g>r to semi-nomadic or fullysedentary lifestyles; <strong>on</strong>ly an estimated 8.5% now live a purely nomadic lifestyle (Iro 2001). Despite <str<strong>on</strong>g>the</str<strong>on</strong>g>irmajor c<strong>on</strong>tributi<strong>on</strong> to <str<strong>on</strong>g>the</str<strong>on</strong>g> Nigerian ec<strong>on</strong>omy through cattle, <str<strong>on</strong>g>the</str<strong>on</strong>g> Fulani nomadic pastoralists are some <str<strong>on</strong>g>of</str<strong>on</strong>g><str<strong>on</strong>g>the</str<strong>on</strong>g> most socially disadvantaged groups <strong>in</strong> <str<strong>on</strong>g>the</str<strong>on</strong>g> country, with especially poor access to medical services(Iro 2001). Malnutriti<strong>on</strong> <strong>in</strong> Fulani children has also been highlighted, attributable <strong>in</strong> part to <str<strong>on</strong>g>the</str<strong>on</strong>g> move tosedentarism, which has led to a change <strong>in</strong> diet, <str<strong>on</strong>g>the</str<strong>on</strong>g> need to sell more <str<strong>on</strong>g>of</str<strong>on</strong>g> <str<strong>on</strong>g>the</str<strong>on</strong>g>ir dairy produce for cash, andcompetiti<strong>on</strong> for resources with o<str<strong>on</strong>g>the</str<strong>on</strong>g>r communities (Expo et al. 2008). On <str<strong>on</strong>g>the</str<strong>on</strong>g> o<str<strong>on</strong>g>the</str<strong>on</strong>g>r hand, 71% <str<strong>on</strong>g>of</str<strong>on</strong>g> thoseFulani <strong>in</strong>terviewed <strong>in</strong> Iro’s (2001) research said that c<strong>on</strong>stantly shift<strong>in</strong>g settlements was <str<strong>on</strong>g>the</str<strong>on</strong>g> ma<strong>in</strong> reas<strong>on</strong>that prevented <str<strong>on</strong>g>the</str<strong>on</strong>g>ir children’s literacy from improv<strong>in</strong>g.9.7.2 Gender <strong>in</strong> Fulani communitiesIn Fulani communities, men look after <str<strong>on</strong>g>the</str<strong>on</strong>g> cattle and women sell <str<strong>on</strong>g>the</str<strong>on</strong>g> milk and dairy products and lookafter <str<strong>on</strong>g>the</str<strong>on</strong>g> domestic sphere (Iro 2001; McCaffery et al. 2006; Usman 2006), although some girls have beenfound to help with <str<strong>on</strong>g>the</str<strong>on</strong>g> herd<strong>in</strong>g <strong>in</strong> families that have few boys (Usman 2010). The male head <str<strong>on</strong>g>of</str<strong>on</strong>g> <str<strong>on</strong>g>the</str<strong>on</strong>g>household decides whe<str<strong>on</strong>g>the</str<strong>on</strong>g>r boys are to go to school (Usman 2006). In semi-nomadic communities <str<strong>on</strong>g>the</str<strong>on</strong>g>boys travel with <str<strong>on</strong>g>the</str<strong>on</strong>g> men and cattle while <str<strong>on</strong>g>the</str<strong>on</strong>g> girls and women stay with <str<strong>on</strong>g>the</str<strong>on</strong>g> elderly <strong>in</strong> <str<strong>on</strong>g>the</str<strong>on</strong>g> camp(McCaffery et al. 2006). Girls/women generally marry <strong>in</strong> <str<strong>on</strong>g>the</str<strong>on</strong>g>ir mid or late teens, whereas men tend tomarry <strong>in</strong> <str<strong>on</strong>g>the</str<strong>on</strong>g>ir 20s (Iro, 2001).However, <strong>on</strong>e <str<strong>on</strong>g>of</str<strong>on</strong>g> <str<strong>on</strong>g>the</str<strong>on</strong>g> aims <str<strong>on</strong>g>of</str<strong>on</strong>g> a DFID-funded pilot project from 1997 to 2001 <strong>in</strong> Adamawa and Taraba(McCaffery et al. 2006) was to tra<strong>in</strong> teachers from nomadic Fulani communities. In <str<strong>on</strong>g>the</str<strong>on</strong>g> case <str<strong>on</strong>g>of</str<strong>on</strong>g> femaleteachers, <str<strong>on</strong>g>the</str<strong>on</strong>g>re was said to be some progress <strong>in</strong> chang<strong>in</strong>g <str<strong>on</strong>g>the</str<strong>on</strong>g> attitudes <str<strong>on</strong>g>of</str<strong>on</strong>g> some Fulani elders who werewill<strong>in</strong>g to let girls delay marriage <strong>in</strong> order to take <str<strong>on</strong>g>the</str<strong>on</strong>g> teacher educati<strong>on</strong> course and <str<strong>on</strong>g>the</str<strong>on</strong>g>n work asteachers with<strong>in</strong> <str<strong>on</strong>g>the</str<strong>on</strong>g> communities <strong>on</strong>ce married. However, <str<strong>on</strong>g>the</str<strong>on</strong>g> authors noted that <str<strong>on</strong>g>the</str<strong>on</strong>g> rate <str<strong>on</strong>g>of</str<strong>on</strong>g> femaleparticipati<strong>on</strong> <strong>in</strong> formal school<strong>in</strong>g rema<strong>in</strong>ed low despite changes <strong>in</strong> attitudes and practices, althoughaga<strong>in</strong> statistics <strong>on</strong> this were lack<strong>in</strong>g.9.7.3 Parental attitudes to formal school<strong>in</strong>gAs a result <str<strong>on</strong>g>of</str<strong>on</strong>g> low participati<strong>on</strong> rates, nomadic pastoralists are <str<strong>on</strong>g>of</str<strong>on</strong>g>ten mistakenly accused <str<strong>on</strong>g>of</str<strong>on</strong>g> be<strong>in</strong>g aga<strong>in</strong>stformal educati<strong>on</strong>. However, Iro’s (2001) survey <str<strong>on</strong>g>of</str<strong>on</strong>g> around 2,000 pastoralists found an 85% approvalrat<strong>in</strong>g for formal educati<strong>on</strong> as many are keen to learn so as to be able to have a greater say <strong>in</strong>governance by hav<strong>in</strong>g Fulani <strong>in</strong> decisi<strong>on</strong>-mak<strong>in</strong>g positi<strong>on</strong>s. There is also a desire to learn how better toengage with markets <strong>in</strong> sell<strong>in</strong>g <str<strong>on</strong>g>the</str<strong>on</strong>g>ir products, to deal with government bureaucracy, and to learnmodern veter<strong>in</strong>ary methods to enable <str<strong>on</strong>g>the</str<strong>on</strong>g>m to look after <str<strong>on</strong>g>the</str<strong>on</strong>g>ir cattle better (McCaffery et al. 2006).Usman’s (2006) study <str<strong>on</strong>g>of</str<strong>on</strong>g> Fulani boys also reported that <str<strong>on</strong>g>the</str<strong>on</strong>g> boys viewed school as a welcome break fromherd<strong>in</strong>g.Even so, <str<strong>on</strong>g>the</str<strong>on</strong>g> Fulani have c<strong>on</strong>cerns about ‘westernised’ formal educati<strong>on</strong>, which threatens <str<strong>on</strong>g>the</str<strong>on</strong>g>irtraditi<strong>on</strong>al nomadic lifestyle and Fulani identity (Usman 2006). As <strong>on</strong>e Fulani leader memorably put it:‘We are not opposed to gett<strong>in</strong>g our children <strong>in</strong>to schools but we fear that at <str<strong>on</strong>g>the</str<strong>on</strong>g> end <str<strong>on</strong>g>of</str<strong>on</strong>g> it <str<strong>on</strong>g>the</str<strong>on</strong>g>y will <strong>on</strong>lybe good for eat<strong>in</strong>g cattle <strong>in</strong>stead <str<strong>on</strong>g>of</str<strong>on</strong>g> tend<strong>in</strong>g and car<strong>in</strong>g for <str<strong>on</strong>g>the</str<strong>on</strong>g>m’ (Nk<strong>in</strong>yangi 1980, cited <strong>in</strong> Usman 2006).In additi<strong>on</strong>, <str<strong>on</strong>g>the</str<strong>on</strong>g> small numbers <str<strong>on</strong>g>of</str<strong>on</strong>g> Fulani that have graduated from university have not returned to <str<strong>on</strong>g>the</str<strong>on</strong>g>Fulani way <str<strong>on</strong>g>of</str<strong>on</strong>g> life (Iro 2001). There is also fear am<strong>on</strong>g some Fulani about schools attempt<strong>in</strong>g to c<strong>on</strong>vert<str<strong>on</strong>g>the</str<strong>on</strong>g>m to Christianity, borne out <str<strong>on</strong>g>of</str<strong>on</strong>g> historical experience with missi<strong>on</strong>aries and <str<strong>on</strong>g>the</str<strong>on</strong>g> fact that someteachers <strong>in</strong> nomadic schools have been accused <str<strong>on</strong>g>of</str<strong>on</strong>g> preach<strong>in</strong>g (ibid.).An evaluati<strong>on</strong> <str<strong>on</strong>g>of</str<strong>on</strong>g> a small nomadic literacy programme for both adults and children <strong>in</strong> Osun State (Olateju2010) found that <str<strong>on</strong>g>the</str<strong>on</strong>g>re was a str<strong>on</strong>g demand for literacy tra<strong>in</strong><strong>in</strong>g, that <str<strong>on</strong>g>the</str<strong>on</strong>g> tra<strong>in</strong><strong>in</strong>g was effective, andEDOREN – Educati<strong>on</strong> Data, Research and Evaluati<strong>on</strong> <strong>in</strong> Nigeria 109
Review <str<strong>on</strong>g>of</str<strong>on</strong>g> <str<strong>on</strong>g>the</str<strong>on</strong>g> <str<strong>on</strong>g>literature</str<strong>on</strong>g> <strong>on</strong> <strong>basic</strong> educati<strong>on</strong> <strong>in</strong> Nigeriathat tra<strong>in</strong><strong>in</strong>g for adults made <str<strong>on</strong>g>the</str<strong>on</strong>g>m more likely to send <str<strong>on</strong>g>the</str<strong>on</strong>g>ir children to school. However, <str<strong>on</strong>g>the</str<strong>on</strong>g> need forchildren’s help with clean<strong>in</strong>g and look<strong>in</strong>g after cattle was an obstacle to full-time regular attendance formany young people (ibid.).9.7.4 C<strong>on</strong>flict<strong>in</strong>g views <strong>on</strong> <str<strong>on</strong>g>the</str<strong>on</strong>g> success <str<strong>on</strong>g>of</str<strong>on</strong>g> nomadic school<strong>in</strong>gAt<strong>in</strong>nmo et al. (2011) c<strong>on</strong>ducted an evaluati<strong>on</strong> survey am<strong>on</strong>g stakeholders <strong>in</strong>volved <strong>in</strong> nomadiceducati<strong>on</strong> across six states – <strong>on</strong>e <strong>in</strong> each geo-political z<strong>on</strong>e. These <strong>in</strong>cluded federal and localgovernment <str<strong>on</strong>g>of</str<strong>on</strong>g>ficials <strong>in</strong>volved <strong>in</strong> nomadic educati<strong>on</strong>, nomadic community leaders, head teachers andteachers. Over three-quarters were positive about <str<strong>on</strong>g>the</str<strong>on</strong>g> success <str<strong>on</strong>g>of</str<strong>on</strong>g> <str<strong>on</strong>g>the</str<strong>on</strong>g> programme <strong>in</strong> terms <str<strong>on</strong>g>of</str<strong>on</strong>g> provid<strong>in</strong>g arelevant functi<strong>on</strong>al <strong>basic</strong> educati<strong>on</strong> programme to nomads, improv<strong>in</strong>g literacy, numeracy, relati<strong>on</strong>s withfarmers and local government <str<strong>on</strong>g>of</str<strong>on</strong>g>ficials and hav<strong>in</strong>g a positive impact <strong>on</strong> <str<strong>on</strong>g>the</str<strong>on</strong>g> nomadic community as awhole. Yet this perceived success was at odds with <str<strong>on</strong>g>the</str<strong>on</strong>g> results <str<strong>on</strong>g>of</str<strong>on</strong>g> <str<strong>on</strong>g>the</str<strong>on</strong>g> questi<strong>on</strong>naire <strong>on</strong> <str<strong>on</strong>g>the</str<strong>on</strong>g> c<strong>on</strong>stra<strong>in</strong>ts <str<strong>on</strong>g>of</str<strong>on</strong>g><str<strong>on</strong>g>the</str<strong>on</strong>g> programme, <strong>in</strong> which over 80% <str<strong>on</strong>g>of</str<strong>on</strong>g> resp<strong>on</strong>dents claimed <str<strong>on</strong>g>the</str<strong>on</strong>g>re were problems with teacher truancyand supervisi<strong>on</strong>, difficulty <strong>in</strong> enforc<strong>in</strong>g attendance, and a lack <str<strong>on</strong>g>of</str<strong>on</strong>g> cooperati<strong>on</strong> between <str<strong>on</strong>g>the</str<strong>on</strong>g> nomads and<str<strong>on</strong>g>the</str<strong>on</strong>g>ir host community. Over half also said <str<strong>on</strong>g>the</str<strong>on</strong>g> curriculum was irrelevant. Crucially, no pupils’ views weresurveyed and nor was <str<strong>on</strong>g>the</str<strong>on</strong>g>re much statistical evidence aga<strong>in</strong>st which to evaluate <str<strong>on</strong>g>the</str<strong>on</strong>g> f<strong>in</strong>d<strong>in</strong>gs.Box 9.4Reas<strong>on</strong>s for school absenteeism and dropout am<strong>on</strong>g nomadic populati<strong>on</strong>sThe reas<strong>on</strong>s for <str<strong>on</strong>g>the</str<strong>on</strong>g> high levels <str<strong>on</strong>g>of</str<strong>on</strong>g> absenteeism and dropout rates am<strong>on</strong>g nomads are various, relatedto <str<strong>on</strong>g>the</str<strong>on</strong>g> disjuncti<strong>on</strong> between nomadic lifestyles and <str<strong>on</strong>g>the</str<strong>on</strong>g> c<strong>on</strong>stra<strong>in</strong>ts <str<strong>on</strong>g>of</str<strong>on</strong>g> formal educati<strong>on</strong>, exacerbatedby discrim<strong>in</strong>atory practices <strong>in</strong> school. They <strong>in</strong>clude:Lack <str<strong>on</strong>g>of</str<strong>on</strong>g> <strong>in</strong>volvement <str<strong>on</strong>g>of</str<strong>on</strong>g> nomads <strong>in</strong> plann<strong>in</strong>g (Ader<strong>in</strong>oye et al. 2007), although this is said to haveimproved more recently (Usman 2006);Poor coord<strong>in</strong>ati<strong>on</strong> and/or lack <str<strong>on</strong>g>of</str<strong>on</strong>g> support for nomadic activities at state and LGEA levels(Ader<strong>in</strong>oye et al. 2007);After <str<strong>on</strong>g>the</str<strong>on</strong>g> <strong>in</strong>itial <strong>in</strong>jecti<strong>on</strong> <str<strong>on</strong>g>of</str<strong>on</strong>g> funds, many nomadic schools are now underfunded, <strong>in</strong> disrepair andlack materials (Iro 2001; Usman 2006; Ader<strong>in</strong>oye et al. 2007); Teacher truancy and lack <str<strong>on</strong>g>of</str<strong>on</strong>g> teacher supervisi<strong>on</strong> (At<strong>in</strong>nmo et al. 2011);Inability to pay school levies, so boys reportedly missed school for a couple <str<strong>on</strong>g>of</str<strong>on</strong>g> weeks to earn <str<strong>on</strong>g>the</str<strong>on</strong>g>m<strong>on</strong>ey herd<strong>in</strong>g to be able to make <str<strong>on</strong>g>the</str<strong>on</strong>g> payments, <str<strong>on</strong>g>the</str<strong>on</strong>g>reby fall<strong>in</strong>g beh<strong>in</strong>d with <str<strong>on</strong>g>the</str<strong>on</strong>g>ir work (Usman2006);Lack <str<strong>on</strong>g>of</str<strong>on</strong>g> fit between school timetabl<strong>in</strong>g and nomadic pastoralists’ traditi<strong>on</strong>al lifestyles. Althoughpolicy demands that appropriate even<strong>in</strong>g shifts are scheduled <strong>in</strong> nomadic schools toaccommodate boys’ and girls’ herd<strong>in</strong>g and milk-sell<strong>in</strong>g duties, respectively, <strong>in</strong> practice someschools have not been operat<strong>in</strong>g even<strong>in</strong>g shifts because teachers had to go out to f<strong>in</strong>d o<str<strong>on</strong>g>the</str<strong>on</strong>g>r work<str<strong>on</strong>g>the</str<strong>on</strong>g>n because <str<strong>on</strong>g>of</str<strong>on</strong>g> delays to <str<strong>on</strong>g>the</str<strong>on</strong>g>ir salaries (Usman 2006). In <strong>on</strong>e survey (Ezeomah 2002, cited <strong>in</strong>Usman 2006), 60% <str<strong>on</strong>g>of</str<strong>on</strong>g> teachers c<strong>on</strong>firmed that Fulani boys’ morn<strong>in</strong>g labour affected <str<strong>on</strong>g>the</str<strong>on</strong>g>irattendance and ultimately <str<strong>on</strong>g>the</str<strong>on</strong>g>ir completi<strong>on</strong> <str<strong>on</strong>g>of</str<strong>on</strong>g> school; Irrelevant curriculum <strong>in</strong> government schools (At<strong>in</strong>nmo et al. 2011);Inappropriate didactic teach<strong>in</strong>g methods, which are at odds with <str<strong>on</strong>g>the</str<strong>on</strong>g> more holistic apprenticestylelearn<strong>in</strong>g that occurs <strong>in</strong> Fulani societies (Iro 2001; Usman 2006);Use <str<strong>on</strong>g>of</str<strong>on</strong>g> corporal punishment, which is meted out for latecom<strong>in</strong>g or n<strong>on</strong>-possessi<strong>on</strong> <str<strong>on</strong>g>of</str<strong>on</strong>g> learn<strong>in</strong>gmaterials but is generally deemed unacceptable to nomadic parents (Usman 2006); and Use <str<strong>on</strong>g>of</str<strong>on</strong>g> English as <str<strong>on</strong>g>the</str<strong>on</strong>g> MOI <strong>in</strong> some schools (Iro 2001).EDOREN – Educati<strong>on</strong> Data, Research and Evaluati<strong>on</strong> <strong>in</strong> Nigeria 110
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