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Review <strong>of</strong> <strong>the</strong> <strong>literature</strong> on basic education in NigeriaUnregulated or unsanctioned use <strong>of</strong> corporal punishment against pupils (Chianu 2000; Urwick andAliyu, 2003; Oluwakemi and Kayode, 2007; Sherry 2008; Boulton et al. 2009; Mahmoud et al. 2011;Dunne et al. 2013);Unsanctioned verbal or psychological abuse <strong>of</strong> pupils (FME 2007b); Non-preparation <strong>of</strong> lessons (Adekola 2007; Dunne et al. 2013); Misuse <strong>of</strong> government loans (Dunne et al. 2013);Missing out parts <strong>of</strong> <strong>the</strong> syllabus (Dunne et al. 2013); andSexual harassment or abuse <strong>of</strong> pupils (ActionAid 2004, cited in Antonowicz et al. 2010; Adelabu2005; FME 2005; Osakue 2006; FME 2007b; Para-Mallam 2010; ActionAid 2011; Bakari 2013; Dunneet al. 2013).Many <strong>of</strong> <strong>the</strong> unpr<strong>of</strong>essional actions that teachers are reported as being prone to have been attributedto teachers’ frustration and inability to cope in difficult circumstances for which <strong>the</strong>y have beeninadequately trained, and to <strong>the</strong>ir resultant low morale (Sherry 2008; Dunne et al. 2013; see also Section10.4). Teacher absenteeism or latecoming has also been attributed to a lack <strong>of</strong> nearby accommodationfor teachers, especially in rural areas (Dunne et al. 2013). This mirrors <strong>the</strong> situation in o<strong>the</strong>r countries inAfrica and Asia (Bennell and Akyeampong 2007). Adelabu (2005), in his study <strong>of</strong> teacher motivation,reported that respondents denied that teacher latecoming and absenteeism was an issue but also notedthat <strong>the</strong>y sometimes ‘massaged <strong>the</strong> records’ (see also Dunne et al. 2013).Whatever <strong>the</strong> reasons for <strong>the</strong> types <strong>of</strong> pr<strong>of</strong>essional misconduct listed above, <strong>the</strong>y do have a negativeimpact on educational quality and are known to be factors in pupil non-enrolment, absenteeism, nonparticipationin class, dropout or withdrawal (Dunne et al. 2013), although to what extent needs to bedetermined.11.5.2 Teachers’ pr<strong>of</strong>essional code <strong>of</strong> conductTeacher discipline, like teacher appointments, has primarily been devolved to <strong>the</strong> sub-national leveldespite <strong>the</strong> existence <strong>of</strong> a relatively recent code <strong>of</strong> conduct for teachers across <strong>the</strong> country (i.e. <strong>the</strong>Pr<strong>of</strong>essional Standards for Nigerian Teachers (TRCN 2011)) and <strong>the</strong> recently reinvigorated TRCN. This is<strong>the</strong> national body that aims to control and regulate <strong>the</strong> teaching pr<strong>of</strong>ession at all levels. It includes <strong>the</strong>TIP, which was constituted in 2007 to investigate allegations <strong>of</strong> misconduct against registered teachersin order to help maintain high standards in <strong>the</strong> teaching pr<strong>of</strong>ession (TRCN 2008). This is open to anymember <strong>of</strong> <strong>the</strong> public to register a complaint about a teaching pr<strong>of</strong>essional, although <strong>the</strong>re is noavailable empirical evidence on <strong>the</strong> frequency or nature <strong>of</strong> <strong>the</strong> allegations that have been made and bywhom.Complaints, in turn, should be investigated by <strong>the</strong> TDC, which exists at national and state level. Again,research evidence is lacking as to what extent <strong>the</strong>se bodies are functioning, what issues are brought to<strong>the</strong>ir attention, and what actions (if any) are taken.There are also disciplinary procedures involving verbal and written ‘queries’ that go up through headteachers to <strong>the</strong> LGEA and <strong>the</strong>n SUBEBs regarding issues concerning teachers’ pr<strong>of</strong>essional conduct(Williams 2009; Dunne et al. 2013). While LGEA and school <strong>of</strong>ficials seem aware <strong>of</strong> <strong>the</strong> procedures,however, <strong>the</strong>re is little written evidence on how this works in practice. In Dunne et al.’s (2013) study inAdamawa, <strong>the</strong> situation seemed more ad hoc, with interviewees talking about head teachers‘counselling’ teachers and reporting ‘persistent <strong>of</strong>fenders’ to <strong>the</strong> LGEA, without giving any details onwhat might constitute persistent <strong>of</strong>fending and whe<strong>the</strong>r anything was done about it. Some cases <strong>of</strong>collusion or cover-up at <strong>the</strong> school or LGEA level were also recounted (Dunne et al. 2013), and it has alsobeen reported that nothing may be done if <strong>the</strong> teacher involved has powerful connections (Williams2009). In a landmark case in Adamawa State that hit <strong>the</strong> national headlines, Adamawa SUBEB dismissedthree male teachers who had been found guilty <strong>of</strong> raping schoolgirls (Dunne et al. 2013).EDOREN – Education Data, Research and Evaluation in Nigeria 133
Review <strong>of</strong> <strong>the</strong> <strong>literature</strong> on basic education in NigeriaBox 11.2 SBMCs monitor teacher recruitment, attendance and performanceThe government partners and CSO SAMARIB who are working toge<strong>the</strong>r in Kano State highlight in <strong>the</strong>irmentoring report <strong>of</strong> February 2012 that SBMCs have agreed ways with <strong>the</strong> school and teachers tomonitor <strong>the</strong> performance <strong>of</strong> <strong>the</strong> teachers and <strong>the</strong> quality <strong>of</strong> lessons in <strong>the</strong> classroom. SBMC memberstake it in turns to visit <strong>the</strong> school and sit in on some lessons to monitor. They have agreed that <strong>the</strong>irobservations will be part <strong>of</strong> a report provided to <strong>the</strong> LGEA and district head at <strong>the</strong> end <strong>of</strong> each month.The CGP [civil society and government partners] report that SBMCs and head teachers are alreadyseeing positive differences in teaching, in lessons and in children’s learning in <strong>the</strong> classroom.Source: Taken from narrative reports related to questionnaire findings (Pinnock 2012: 51)11.5.3 Corporal punishmentCorporal punishment merits fur<strong>the</strong>r elaboration since it has a major impact on school access and on <strong>the</strong>quality <strong>of</strong> education. It is also a highly gender-differentiated practice, with particular gender effects (seealso sections 8.4 and 12.2).The recently published document on Pr<strong>of</strong>essional Standards for Nigerian Teachers states: ‘Teachers doNOT [original emphasis] under any circumstance administer corporal punishment on learners’ (TRCN2011: 39). Until recently, however, it was permitted in school throughout Nigeria, with <strong>the</strong> consent <strong>of</strong><strong>the</strong> school head and provided that <strong>the</strong> punishment was recorded, although state legislation may havevaried on o<strong>the</strong>r specificities. Moreover, in <strong>the</strong> 2010 NEDS (NPC and RTI International, 2011)parents/guardians were overwhelmingly in favour <strong>of</strong> caning pupils to maintain discipline (86.5%–95.5%),irrespective <strong>of</strong> region, economic status, area <strong>of</strong> residence, or gender. The Adamawa study also reportedsome parents specifically bringing <strong>the</strong>ir child to school to be beaten (Dunne et al. 2013). It is clear thatany attempt to abolish corporal punishment in practice is going to necessitate extensive negotiationwith parents/guardians.Importantly, <strong>the</strong> unregulated application <strong>of</strong> corporal punishment impacts negatively on school accessand pupil learning (to be discussed in Section 12.2).Surprisingly, UNICEF’s assessment <strong>of</strong> violence in basic education in 48 schools across four states (twonor<strong>the</strong>rn, two sou<strong>the</strong>rn) suggested relatively low levels <strong>of</strong> corporal punishment in comparison to <strong>the</strong>high levels <strong>of</strong> psychological violence by teachers, but admitted underreporting by respondents (FME2007b).11.6 Issues arising and gaps in <strong>the</strong> evidenceAs schooling becomes increasingly decentralised, so <strong>the</strong> head teacher (along with <strong>the</strong> SBMC/PTA)becomes increasingly important to school improvement and school quality; however, <strong>the</strong>re is virtuallyno <strong>literature</strong> on head teachers in Nigeria, <strong>the</strong>ir needs, challenges, relations with staff, pupils andcommunities, and how <strong>the</strong>y perceive <strong>the</strong>ir roles and responsibilities. Currently, gender-disaggregateddata on head teachers are not collected.Studies on <strong>the</strong> effectiveness or o<strong>the</strong>rwise <strong>of</strong> particular training on head teacher management oradministration would be beneficial, involving ethnographic, observational data on what head teachersactually do in schools on a day-to-day basis.Overall, we need to know a great deal more about <strong>the</strong> processes <strong>of</strong> school and teacher management,including disciplinary procedures and sanctions, both in policy and practice, given teachers’ centrality toschool quality and <strong>the</strong> potential <strong>the</strong>y have to ‘push’ children out <strong>of</strong> school.EDOREN – Education Data, Research and Evaluation in Nigeria 134
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