Toxicology of Industrial Compounds

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344 TOXICOLOGY OF SURFACTANTS problem of labelling chemical products with respect to their toxicological properties has to be addressed. Different national or international regulations, e.g. the EG directive 67/548 within the European Community, dictate that these products are labelled ‘irritating’ or ‘corrosive’ whenever exactly defined effects are observed in appropriate tests. With consumer protection in mind, exceedingly stringent test procedures have been established. These conditions frequently result in an unfavourable classification especially for surfactants. When interpreting data from such studies, it is important to consider that unrealistic conditions of exposure were involved. Since anionic surfactants are the class with the greatest economic importance, they are the best studied. No general statement is possible with regard to a classification of the various groups of anionic surfactants in order of their skin compatibility, since within each class of substances significant differences exist in their effect on skin depending on the respective structure. Opdyke et al. (1965), for example, found a decrease in the skin irritation potential of different alkyl ether sulphates with increasing level of ethoxylation. The effect of the alkyl chain length of anionic surfactants was examined in different test models for soaps, alkyl sulphates, alkyl sulphonates, alkylbenzene sulphonates as well as alphaolefin sulphonates (Kästner, 1980). As shown in Table 24.1, it could be established in all cases that compounds with a saturated side chain of 10– 12 C atoms exert the largest effect, or rather, have the highest potential for damage. When the results of skin compatibility tests for the most important classes of anionic surfactants are summarized, it becomes evident that the undiluted products have to be regarded as strongly irritating substances. Even at concentrations of 10 per cent moderate to strong effects have to be expected. However, at concentrations less than 1 per cent, which is the range corresponding to typical use levels in detergents, only minimal irritation is observed. Nonionic surfactants have a good skin compatibility at normal use levels. Although studies with alcohol ethoxylates were reported in which a strong irritant effect was observed (Grupp et al., 1960), these studies used concentrations far above the usual exposure levels of consumers. Independent of their structure, cationic surfactants cause severe skin damage in high concentrations, while typical application levels are generally tolerated well. Mucous membrane compatibility When talking about mucous membrane compatibility one has to consider not only the mucous membranes of the eye. In addition, the mucous membranes in the mouth, upper and lower gastrointestinal tract as well as the urogenital tract have to be considered. In general, the effects of
Table 24.1 Structure/activity relationships of anionic surfactants W.STERZEL 345 a Test model: A=epicutaneous, mouse; B=intracutaneous, mouse; C=epicutaneous, man; D=roughness of skin; E=swelling of collagen in vitro; F=denaturation of protein in vitro. b Number of carbon atoms in the alkyl chain. surfactants on mucous membranes are based on the same biochemical mechanisms that are described in the chapter on skin compatibility. Special characteristics in the fine structure of mucous membranes, like the absence of keratin, result in a significantly higher sensitivity of these tissues towards chemical substances. Irritating materials affecting the eye cause reddening through increased blood flow in the conjunctivae with enlargement of the blood vessels. This can finally lead to the destruction of the cell walls accompanied by bleeding. Depending on the severity of the effects, a more or less pronounced swelling or reflex-induced closure of the eyelid will occur, followed by tearing and secretion. If the degree of irritation is low, epithelium damage develops on the cornea which can be visualized only with special techniques (staining, slit lamp microscope) and which is generally reversible. In severe cases the effects result in irreversible clouding of the cornea and therefore lead to an impairment of the eyesight. The classical method for the evaluation of mucous membrane compatibility of chemicals is the so-called Draize test on the rabbit eye (Draize et al., 1944). A structure/activity relationship with respect to the length of the respective alkyl chains of anionic surfactants can, as for the skin compatibility, also be observed for the mucous membrane compatibility (Kästner, 1980). According to this, the maximum irritation occurs at chain lengths of C 10−14. for n-alkyl sulphates as well as for nalkyl sulphonates. Although the irritation potential of the different surfactant classes extends over a large range, it can be concluded that the mucous membrane compatibility decreases in the following order:
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Toxicology of Industrial Compounds
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This edition published in the Taylo
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8. Pulmonary Toxicity Studies with
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Preface A large number of chemical
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Contributors May Akrawi Department
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Beverly M.Kulig TNO Toxicology, Dep
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Richard A.Versen Schuller MTC, Heal
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1 Biomonitoring and Absorption of I
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4 BIOMONITORING AND ABSORPTION OF I
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10 BIOMONITORING AND ABSORPTION OF
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2 Toxicokinetics and Biodisposition
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14 TOXICOKINETICS AND BIODISPOSITIO
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3 Metabolic Activation of Industria
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38 METABOLIC ACTIVATION OF INDUSTRI
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4 Sizing up the Problem of Exposure
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46 SIZING UP THE PROBLEM OF EXPOSUR
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5 Metabolism of Reactive Chemicals
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62 METABOLISM OF REACTIVE CHEMICALS
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6 Methods for the Determination of
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74 METHODS FOR THE DETERMINATION OF
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PART THREE Pulmonary toxicology of
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92 CARCINOGENIC POTENTIAL OF MAN-MA
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100 CARCINOGENIC POTENTIAL OF MAN-M
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118 PULMONARY TOXICITY STUDIES WITH
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130 PULMONARY HYPERREACTIVITY TO IN
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10 Mechanisms of Pulmonary Sensitiz
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140 MECHANISMS OF PULMONARY SENSITI
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150 OCCUPATIONAL ASTHMA INDUCED BY
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12 Biomarkers and Risk Assessment K
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160 BIOMARKERS AND RISK ASSESSMENT
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168 EXTRAPOLATION OF TOXICITY DATA
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14 Molecular Approaches to Assess C
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182 MOLECULAR APPROACHES TO ASSESS
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198 EVALUATION OF TOXICITY TO THE I
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208 USE OF LONG-TERM CULTURES OF HE
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PART FIVE Mechanisms of toxicity of
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224 PEROXISOME PROLIFERATION normal
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226 PEROXISOME PROLIFERATION demons
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228 PEROXISOME PROLIFERATION Specie
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230 PEROXISOME PROLIFERATION intend
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232 PEROXISOME PROLIFERATION BENTLE
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234 PEROXISOME PROLIFERATION KRAUPP
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236 PEROXISOME PROLIFERATION POPP,
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18 Neurotoxicity Testing of Industr
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240 NEUROTOXICITY TESTING OF INDUST
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256 ENDOCRINE TOXICOLOGY OF THE THY
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20 Testing and Evaluation for Repro
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282 TESTING AND EVALUATION FOR REPR
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Page 370 and 371: 25 Low Dose of a Genotoxic Carcinog
Page 372 and 373: 358 CARCINOGENESIS AT LOW DOSE Tabl
Page 374 and 375: 360 CARCINOGENESIS AT LOW DOSE year
Page 376 and 377: 26 Controversial Mechanistic and Re
Page 378 and 379: 364 CONTROVERSIAL ISSUES IN SAFETY
Page 388 and 389: 374 INDEX 2-bromo-glutathionyl 64 B
Page 390 and 391: 376 INDEX Gas chromatography/mass s
Page 392 and 393: 378 INDEX mRNA analysis 211 Mutagen
Page 394 and 395: 380 INDEX Surfactants 338-55 acute
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Toxicology of Industrial Compounds

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