Biofuels in Perspective

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Cow manure Pig manure Yard manure Beet leafs Fodder beets Sudan grass Grass silage Rye GPS Maize silage Cereal residues Old bread Baking wastes Used grease 0 25 30 60 60 90 130 160 180 230 200 Figure 10.1 Biogas yield from different substrates. Biomass Solid wastes Slurries Liquid wastes Biogas Anaerobic digestion waste water solid wastes Stable sludge soil conditioner for food production Biomass Digestion to Methane in Agriculture 173 550 600 714 600 800 m3 400 Biogas per ton wet biomass Electric power + heating (power-heat production) Solids Liquid Effluent Combustion or other physical processes Post treatment biological chemical physical Mineral recovery (N,P,S) for food production 960 1000 final effluent reuse or discharge Figure 10.2 Flow sheet of the application of anaerobic digestion for energy production and resource recovery. 1200
174 Biofuels Table 10.1 The renewable energy act of the European Community provides a compensation plus a bonus which allows to obtain a total of about 15–17 €-cent per kWh electricity produced via biogas Electrical capacity [kW] Compensation paid for electricity [Cent/k Wh el] Bonus for biomass [Cent/k Wh el] 150 11.33 6.0 150–500 9.75 6.0 500–5000 8.77 4.0 CHP bonus: 2 Cent/k Wh el for external heat utilization Technology bonus: 2 Cen/k Wh el (e.g., dry fermentation) biogas production (EEG, 2004). Therefore, the application of the mono-fermentation of energy crops is a fast increasing market. The biomass bonus is paid in addition to the basic compensation for a period of 20 years. The value of biomass bonus depends on the electrical capacity of the plant and is between 4 and 6 €-Cent per kWh (Table 10.1). 10.3 Biogas Production Potential Biogas is produced by the biological process of anaerobic digestion by which organic material is transformed into gaseous products, mainly methane and carbon dioxide. Methane production is of particular interest because it is a fuel that can be used for several applications. As shown in Figure 10.2 anaerobic digestion can be applied for biogas generation from liquid (municipal and industrial waste waters, slurries (sludges, ‘liquid’ manure) and solid wastes (manure and municipal refuse). A more recent liquid application is the use for biogas production from agricultural crops that are grown for the specific purpose of energy production. In the following sections, a few practical examples are presented to highlight the potential for energy generation by anaerobic digestion. 10.3.1 Germany The Renewable Energy Act is the driving force for the development and application of agricultural biogas plants for electricity generation and the key element for climate protection, environmental protection and for the fast-growing biogas market. A study of the Federal Agricultural Research Centre (FAL) has shown that at the end of the year 2005 approx. 3000 biogas plants with a total installed electrical capacity of almost 600 MW were in operation in Germany (Figure 10.3). The total biogas potential in Germany on the basis of the available organic wastes, by-products and energy crops is calculated by the Federal Agricultural Research Centre (FAL) as 24 bil. m 3 biogas per year. The main sources are energy crops produced on approx. 1.4 mil. Hectares, manure and by-products from crop production, and processing whereas organic wastes from households and wastewater treatment have only a low potential (Figure 10.4).
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Biofuels Biofuels. Edited by Wim So
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Biofuels Edited by WIM SOETAERT Ghe
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Contents Series Preface ix Preface
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Contents vii 6.3 Biomass Gasificati
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Series Preface Renewable resources,
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Preface This volume on Biofuels fit
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Editors List of Contributors Wim So
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1 Biofuels in Perspective W. Soetae
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Table 1.1 Approximate average world
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Table 1.3 Energy yields of bio-ener
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Biofuels in Perspective 7 is burnt
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2 Sustainable Production of Cellulo
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Sustainable Production of Cellulosi
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Figure 2.9 2004 US adoption rates o
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3 Bio-Ethanol Development in the US
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Bio-Ethanol Development in the USA
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Biorefineries in Production (115) B
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Cost of Cellulosic Ethanol, $ per g
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4 Bio-Ethanol Development(s) in Bra
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Bio-Ethanol Development(s) in Brazi
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Share of energy consumption 100% 90
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Table 4.2 Main technological improv
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4.7.4 Use of Fertilizers and Pestic
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78 Biofuels Table 5.1 Biodiesel pro
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80 Biofuels CH 2 O CH O COR R1 + 3
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82 Biofuels short reaction times. 9
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84 Biofuels Table 5.4 Overview on h
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86 Biofuels Table 5.5 Critical cond
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88 Biofuels methoxide as catalyst u
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90 Biofuels KOH Methano Oil/Fat Aci
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92 Biofuels 16. J. Graille, P. Loza
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6 Bio-based Fischer-Tropsch Diesel
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6.2.1.2 Catalysts Bio-based Fischer
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Bio-based Fischer-Tropsch Diesel Pr
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7 Plant Oil Biofuel: Rationale, Pro
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Table 7.1 Market milestones for pla
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Water CO 2 Figure 7.1 Closed CO 2 l
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Page 145 and 146: 130 Biofuels Among the attractive f
Page 147 and 148: 132 Biofuels Table 8.1 Enzymatic tr
Page 149 and 150: 134 Biofuels conversion was maintai
Page 151 and 152: 136 Biofuels (diglycerides) decreas
Page 153 and 154: 138 Biofuels ME content (wt.%) Reac
Page 155 and 156: 140 Biofuels Ratio of initial react
Page 157 and 158: 142 Biofuels (a) 34 kDa 31 kDa 34 k
Page 159 and 160: 144 Biofuels preparation of whole-c
Page 161 and 162: ability to reduce flocculation (% o
Page 163 and 164: 148 Biofuels 5. R. C. Strayer, J. A
Page 165 and 166: 150 Biofuels 46. H. Fukuda, Immobil
Page 168 and 169: 9 Production of Biodiesel from Wast
Page 170 and 171: Production of Biodiesel from Waste
Page 174 and 175: 9.3.2 Processing of Crude and Waste
Page 176 and 177: Heavy layer from alkaline neutralis
Page 182 and 183: CPO I 1 1 Heating 60°C Reaction st
Page 184 and 185: References Production of Biodiesel
Page 186 and 187: 10 Biomass Digestion to Methane in
Page 190 and 191: Number of plants 3000 2500 2000 150
Page 192 and 193: Biomass Digestion to Methane in Agr
Page 196 and 197: Table 10.4 Alternative forms of ene
Page 200 and 201: Wet fermentation 3 - 10% TS applica
Page 202 and 203: Rel. Frequency [%] 35 30 25 20 15 1
Page 204 and 205: Steam 2 1 Energy crops (& manure) D
Page 210: Biomass Digestion to Methane in Agr
Page 213 and 214: 198 Biofuels 11.1 Introduction Hydr
Page 215 and 216: 200 Biofuels lactate 6 glucose 1 GA
Page 217 and 218: Table 11.2 Continued Organism Domai
Page 219 and 220: 204 Biofuels NADH is that the react
Page 221 and 222: 206 Biofuels Clostridium thermocell
Page 223 and 224: 208 Biofuels in particular in Cl. p
Page 225 and 226: 210 Biofuels ferredoxin-dependent m
Page 227 and 228: 212 Biofuels Concentration (mM) 45
Page 229 and 230: 214 Biofuels genes of the glycolysi
Page 231 and 232: 216 Biofuels 11. S. Tanisho and Y.
Page 233 and 234: 218 Biofuels 49. M. J. Axley, D. A.
Page 235 and 236: 220 Biofuels 83. P. J. Silva, E. C.
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12 Improving Sustainability of the
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Table 12.1 Corn ethanol dry mill: e
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Table 12.2 Atmospheric CO2 (equival
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Table 12.3 Incremental CO2 equivale
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Improving Sustainability of the Cor
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Improving Sustainability of the Cor
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Index italic entries indicate refer
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iorefineries 3, 10, 11, 41 and corn
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policy (official) 59-61 production
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NADH 200-6, 207, 210 natural gas 1
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