Biofuels in Perspective

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Sustainable Production of Cellulosic Feedstock 11 including significant job creation in rural communities and mitigation of US emissions of greenhouse gases. 2.2 Availability of Cellulosic Feedstocks A large, reliable, economic and sustainable feedstock supply is required for a biorefinery. Current yields for ethanol from agricultural residues (corn stover, straw from wheat, rice and other cereals, and sugarcane bagasse) are about 65 gallons per dry ton. 6 Thus, a moderately sized 65 million-gallon-per-year cellulosic biorefinery would need 1 million dry tons per year of feedstock. This could require 500,000 acres or more of cropland – a supply radius of at least 15 miles. The supply radius varies from 15 to 30 or more miles, depending on crop rotation, tillage practices, soil characteristics, topography, weather and farmer participation. Research at a variety of sites indicates that economic delivery of crop residues is achievable at this radius and beyond – up to 50 miles from the biorefinery site when short line rail transport is available. 7 So, cellulosic biorefineries of well over 100 million gallon capacity are possible. To sustain a commercial-scale biorefinery, cropland surrounding the site should meet the following criteria: � large area: minimum of 500,000 acres of available cropland; � sustainable: cropping practice maintains or enhances long-term health of the soil; � reliable: consistent crop supply history with dry harvest weather; � economic: high-yielding cropland; � favorable transport: easy access from field to storage and processing facilities. The recent USDA/DOE study on the technical feasibility of a billion-ton annual supply of biomass for bioenergy and biobased products estimated the potential amount of biomass available on an annual basis from agricultural sources in the United States at nearly 1 billion dry tons. Crop residues are the largest anticipated source. Assuming continued strong increases in corn yields from agricultural biotechnology and conversion of present cropping methods to no-till harvest (which allows for greater residue collection), the report estimates that 428 million dry tons of crop residues could be available on an annual basis by 2030. Most of the remainder, 377 million dry tons, is expected to come from new perennial energy crops. 4 The report anticipates the addition of 60 million acres of perennial energy crops as a market develops for cellulosic biomass. The development of high-yielding dedicated energy crops will be a critical element in achieving the DOE goal of 30 % petroleum displacement. Of greater interest in the near term (3–5 years) is the current sustainable availability of biomass from agricultural lands. Corn stover – the leaves and stalks of the corn plant that remain after grain harvest (see Figure 2.1) – is the dominant near-term source of agricultural cellulosic biomass (see Figure 2.2), with substantial contributions from wheat straw, other small grain straw, soybeans and corn fiber. These figures assume a delivered price at the biorefinery of $30 per dry ton.
12 Biofuels Figure 2.1 Stover consists of the stalks, cobs and leaves that are usually left on the ground following corn harvest. Equipment for collection of corn stover must be developed, since few commercial uses for stover currently exist. Source: USDA Agricultural Research Service. Figure 2.2 Cellulosic biomass currently available for sustainable collection in the US, according to a USDA-DOE analysis. Recent farmer colloquies suggest the actual available amount could be more than double this estimate. Source: Perlack, Wright et al., 2005.
Page 2 and 3: Biofuels Biofuels. Edited by Wim So
Page 4 and 5: Biofuels Edited by WIM SOETAERT Ghe
Page 6 and 7: Contents Series Preface ix Preface
Page 8 and 9: Contents vii 6.3 Biomass Gasificati
Page 10 and 11: Series Preface Renewable resources,
Page 12 and 13: Preface This volume on Biofuels fit
Page 14 and 15: Editors List of Contributors Wim So
Page 16 and 17: 1 Biofuels in Perspective W. Soetae
Page 18 and 19: Table 1.1 Approximate average world
Page 20 and 21: Table 1.3 Energy yields of bio-ener
Page 22 and 23: Biofuels in Perspective 7 is burnt
Page 24 and 25: 2 Sustainable Production of Cellulo
Page 28 and 29: Sustainable Production of Cellulosi
Page 38 and 39: Figure 2.9 2004 US adoption rates o
Page 54 and 55: 3 Bio-Ethanol Development in the US
Page 56 and 57: Bio-Ethanol Development in the USA
Page 58 and 59: Biorefineries in Production (115) B
Page 66 and 67: Cost of Cellulosic Ethanol, $ per g
Page 70 and 71: 4 Bio-Ethanol Development(s) in Bra
Page 72 and 73: Bio-Ethanol Development(s) in Brazi
Page 74 and 75: Share of energy consumption 100% 90
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Bio-Ethanol Development(s) in Brazi
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Table 4.2 Main technological improv
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4.7.4 Use of Fertilizers and Pestic
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78 Biofuels Table 5.1 Biodiesel pro
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80 Biofuels CH 2 O CH O COR R1 + 3
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82 Biofuels short reaction times. 9
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84 Biofuels Table 5.4 Overview on h
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86 Biofuels Table 5.5 Critical cond
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88 Biofuels methoxide as catalyst u
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90 Biofuels KOH Methano Oil/Fat Aci
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92 Biofuels 16. J. Graille, P. Loza
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6 Bio-based Fischer-Tropsch Diesel
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6.2.1.2 Catalysts Bio-based Fischer
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Bio-based Fischer-Tropsch Diesel Pr
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7 Plant Oil Biofuel: Rationale, Pro
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Table 7.1 Market milestones for pla
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Water CO 2 Figure 7.1 Closed CO 2 l
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Plant Oil Biofuel: Rationale, Produ
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130 Biofuels Among the attractive f
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132 Biofuels Table 8.1 Enzymatic tr
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134 Biofuels conversion was maintai
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136 Biofuels (diglycerides) decreas
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138 Biofuels ME content (wt.%) Reac
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140 Biofuels Ratio of initial react
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142 Biofuels (a) 34 kDa 31 kDa 34 k
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144 Biofuels preparation of whole-c
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ability to reduce flocculation (% o
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148 Biofuels 5. R. C. Strayer, J. A
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150 Biofuels 46. H. Fukuda, Immobil
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9 Production of Biodiesel from Wast
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Production of Biodiesel from Waste
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9.3.2 Processing of Crude and Waste
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Heavy layer from alkaline neutralis
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CPO I 1 1 Heating 60°C Reaction st
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References Production of Biodiesel
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10 Biomass Digestion to Methane in
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Cow manure Pig manure Yard manure B
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Number of plants 3000 2500 2000 150
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Biomass Digestion to Methane in Agr
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Table 10.4 Alternative forms of ene
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Wet fermentation 3 - 10% TS applica
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Rel. Frequency [%] 35 30 25 20 15 1
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Steam 2 1 Energy crops (& manure) D
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198 Biofuels 11.1 Introduction Hydr
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200 Biofuels lactate 6 glucose 1 GA
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Table 11.2 Continued Organism Domai
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204 Biofuels NADH is that the react
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206 Biofuels Clostridium thermocell
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208 Biofuels in particular in Cl. p
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210 Biofuels ferredoxin-dependent m
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212 Biofuels Concentration (mM) 45
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214 Biofuels genes of the glycolysi
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216 Biofuels 11. S. Tanisho and Y.
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218 Biofuels 49. M. J. Axley, D. A.
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220 Biofuels 83. P. J. Silva, E. C.
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12 Improving Sustainability of the
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Table 12.1 Corn ethanol dry mill: e
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Table 12.2 Atmospheric CO2 (equival
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Table 12.3 Incremental CO2 equivale
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Improving Sustainability of the Cor
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Improving Sustainability of the Cor
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Index italic entries indicate refer
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iorefineries 3, 10, 11, 41 and corn
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policy (official) 59-61 production
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NADH 200-6, 207, 210 natural gas 1
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Biofuels in Perspective

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