Biofuels in Perspective

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Bio-Ethanol Development in the USA 53 Finally, as the bio-ethanol industry grows, federal and private investment in fundamental biofuels research must continue. New enzyme cocktails and more efficient fermentation organisms are needed for cellulosic feedstocks. And more research is needed to develop higher-order alcohols with greater energy densities, such as the recent alliance between BP and DuPont to commercialize bio-butanol. There is much in recent US policy discussions to suggest that the federal government will be willing participants in many, if not all, of these areas. Discussions are now underway on a rewrite of federal agriculture policy. The most recent US farm bill is due to expire in 2007, and leaders in both the House of Representatives and the Senate have indicated that biofuels programs – particularly investments in cellulosic feedstocks – will be a major component of the next farm bill. Recent legislation introduced in Congress also calls for a greatly expanded Renewable Fuels Standard, with a growing proportion of fuels coming from cellulosic feedstocks. Momentum is also building for a low-carbon fuels standard that would require graduated reductions in the greenhouse gas emissions profile of the nation’s fuel supply over time. Discussions also continue on a mandatory economy-wide greenhouse gas cap-and-trade system, both of which would strongly favor cellulosic ethanol. (A growing number of states have already implemented regional climate cap-and-trade systems of their own, though few currently apply to transportation fuels.) All of this suggests that the US bio-ethanol industry is likely to continue to aggressively expand in the coming decade. The possibility remains that, as in the decades following the Second World War and the oil shocks of the 1970s, petroleum prices may fall to a level where bio-ethanol is priced out of the marketplace, sapping public and federal support for biofuels. But sentiment is growing that increasing demand from China and other developing economies is likely to maintain pressure on fuel prices. With new policy tools such as an expanded renewable fuels standard, and growing pressure to regulate greenhouse gas emissions, expansion of the US biofuels market may be here to stay. References 1. B. Kovarik, Henry Ford, Charles F. Kettering and the Fuel of the Future, Automotive History Review, 32, 7–27, http://www.radford.edu/∼wkovarik/papers/fuel.html 2. US Department of Energy, Energy Information Administration, Energy Kid’s Page, http://www.eia.doe.gov/kids/ history/timelines/ethanol.html 3. Wikipedia.com, http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/1973 oil crisis 4. US Environmental Protection Agency, press release, Nov. 28, 1973, http://www.epa.gov/history/ topics/lead/03.htm 5. Renewable Fuels Association, http://www.ethanolrfa.org/industry/statistics/#A 6. Renewable Fuels Association, http://www.ethanolrfa.org/industry/locations/ 7. USA Today, Jun 21, 2006, http://www.usatoday.com/money/industries/energy/2006-06-21ethanol-usat x.htm 8. Statement of Keith Collins, Chief Economist, US Department of Agriculture, Before the US Senate Committee on Agriculture, Nutrition and Forestry, Washington, D.C., Jan 10, 2007, http://www.usda.gov/oce/newsroom/congressional testimony/Collins 011007.pdf 9. EthanolMarket.com, http://ethanolmarket.aghost.net/ 10. R. Schnefp, Agriculture-Based Renewable Energy Production, Cong. Res. Serv., Jan. 8, 2007, Order Code RL32712
54 Biofuels 11. National Corn Growers Association, How Much Ethanol Can Come from Corn?, Washington, D.C., 2006, http://www.ncga.com/ethanol/pdfs/2006/HowMuchEthanolCan%20ComeFrom Corn.v.2.pdf 12. R. D. Perlack, L. L. Wright, et al., Oak Ridge National Laboratory, Biomass as Feedstock for a Bioenergy and Bioproducts Industry: The Technical Feasibility of a Billion-Ton Annual Supply, ORNL/TM-2005/66, Oak Ridge, Tenn., April 2005, http://feedstockreview.ornl. gov/pdf/billion ton vision.pdf 13. N. Greene, Natural Resources Defense Council, Growing Energy: How Biofuels Can Help End America’s Oil Dependence, Washington D.C., December 2004, http://www.nrdc.org/air/ energy/biofuels/biofuels.pdf 14. J. Hettenhaus, Biotechnology Industry Organization, Achieving Sustainable Production of Agricultural Biomass for Biorefinery Feedstock, Washington D.C., November 2006. 15. National Ethanol Vehicle Coalition, How Many E85 Compatible Vehicles Are on American Roads Today?, http://www.e85fuel.com/e85101/faqs/number ffvs.php 16. National Ethanol Vehicle Coalition, E85 Refueling Locations By State, http://www.e85refueling .com/states.php 17. Ethanol Study Committee, Ethanol Production From Biomass With Emphasis on Corn, University of Wisconsin, Madison, September 1979. 18. H. Shapouri, J.A. Duffield and M. Wang, The Energy Balance of Corn Ethanol: An Update, USDA, July 2002. 19. Renewable Fuels Association, Ethanol Industry Outlook 2007: Building New Horizons, Feb. 2007, http://www.ethanolrfa.org/objects/pdf/outlook/RFA Outlook 2007.pdf. 20. R. Dale and W. Tyner, Economic Analysis of Dry-Milling Milling Technologies, Power- Point Presentation, Purdue University DOE Grant # DE-FG36-04G014220, http://cobweb.ecn. purdue.edu/∼lorre/16/Midwest %20Consortium/9-tyner-dry-mill-ethanol-model-nov17.pdf 21. S. Eckhoff, Wet Milling Versus Dry Grind: Effect of Co-Products and Economy of Scale,Presentation at Sustainable Bioenergy: Focus on the Future of Biofuels and Chemicals, April 13-14, 2006, UIUC, http://www.sustainablebioenergy.uiuc.edu/Presentations/Eckoff.pdf. 22. US Department of Energy, Energy Information Administration, U.S. Natural Gas Wellhead Price History, http://tonto.eia.doe.gov/dnav/ng/hist/n9190us3m.htm. 23. M. Wang, Argonne National Laboratory, Energy and Greenhouse Gas Emissions Impacts of Fuel Ethanol, presentation to the National Corn Growers Association Renewable Fuels Forum, Washington, D.C., August 23, 2005, http://www.anl.gov/Media Center/News/ 2005/NCGA Ethanol Meeting 050823.ppt. 24. P.R. Adler, S.J. Del Grosso and W.J. Parton, Life-Cycle Assessment of Net Greenhouse-Gas Flux for Bioenergy Cropping Systems, Ecological Applications, 17(3), 675–691 (2007). 25. A.E. Farrell, R.J. Plevin, B.T. Turner, A.D. Jones, M. O’Hare and D.M. Kammen, Ethanol Can Contribute to Energy and Environmental Goals, Science, 311, 506–508 (2007). 26. Statement of Michael Pacheco, Director, National Bioenergy Center, National Renewable Energy Laboratory, to the House Committee on Energy and Commerce, Washington, D.C., May 24, 2006, http://energycommerce.house.gov/reparchives/108/Hearings/05242006hearing1909/ Pacheco.pdf
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Biofuels Biofuels. Edited by Wim So
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Biofuels Edited by WIM SOETAERT Ghe
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Contents Series Preface ix Preface
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Contents vii 6.3 Biomass Gasificati
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Series Preface Renewable resources,
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Preface This volume on Biofuels fit
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Editors List of Contributors Wim So
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1 Biofuels in Perspective W. Soetae
Page 18 and 19: Table 1.1 Approximate average world
Page 20 and 21: Table 1.3 Energy yields of bio-ener
Page 22 and 23: Biofuels in Perspective 7 is burnt
Page 24 and 25: 2 Sustainable Production of Cellulo
Page 26 and 27: Sustainable Production of Cellulosi
Page 38 and 39: Figure 2.9 2004 US adoption rates o
Page 54 and 55: 3 Bio-Ethanol Development in the US
Page 56 and 57: Bio-Ethanol Development in the USA
Page 58 and 59: Biorefineries in Production (115) B
Page 66 and 67: Cost of Cellulosic Ethanol, $ per g
Page 70 and 71: 4 Bio-Ethanol Development(s) in Bra
Page 72 and 73: Bio-Ethanol Development(s) in Brazi
Page 74 and 75: Share of energy consumption 100% 90
Page 80 and 81: Table 4.2 Main technological improv
Page 84 and 85: 4.7.4 Use of Fertilizers and Pestic
Page 90: Bio-Ethanol Development(s) in Brazi
Page 93 and 94: 78 Biofuels Table 5.1 Biodiesel pro
Page 95 and 96: 80 Biofuels CH 2 O CH O COR R1 + 3
Page 97 and 98: 82 Biofuels short reaction times. 9
Page 99 and 100: 84 Biofuels Table 5.4 Overview on h
Page 101 and 102: 86 Biofuels Table 5.5 Critical cond
Page 103 and 104: 88 Biofuels methoxide as catalyst u
Page 105 and 106: 90 Biofuels KOH Methano Oil/Fat Aci
Page 107 and 108: 92 Biofuels 16. J. Graille, P. Loza
Page 110 and 111: 6 Bio-based Fischer-Tropsch Diesel
Page 112 and 113: 6.2.1.2 Catalysts Bio-based Fischer
Page 114 and 115: Bio-based Fischer-Tropsch Diesel Pr
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Bio-based Fischer-Tropsch Diesel Pr
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7 Plant Oil Biofuel: Rationale, Pro
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Table 7.1 Market milestones for pla
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Water CO 2 Figure 7.1 Closed CO 2 l
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Plant Oil Biofuel: Rationale, Produ
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130 Biofuels Among the attractive f
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132 Biofuels Table 8.1 Enzymatic tr
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134 Biofuels conversion was maintai
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136 Biofuels (diglycerides) decreas
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138 Biofuels ME content (wt.%) Reac
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140 Biofuels Ratio of initial react
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142 Biofuels (a) 34 kDa 31 kDa 34 k
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144 Biofuels preparation of whole-c
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ability to reduce flocculation (% o
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148 Biofuels 5. R. C. Strayer, J. A
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150 Biofuels 46. H. Fukuda, Immobil
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9 Production of Biodiesel from Wast
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Production of Biodiesel from Waste
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9.3.2 Processing of Crude and Waste
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Heavy layer from alkaline neutralis
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CPO I 1 1 Heating 60°C Reaction st
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References Production of Biodiesel
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10 Biomass Digestion to Methane in
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Cow manure Pig manure Yard manure B
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Number of plants 3000 2500 2000 150
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Biomass Digestion to Methane in Agr
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Table 10.4 Alternative forms of ene
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Wet fermentation 3 - 10% TS applica
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Rel. Frequency [%] 35 30 25 20 15 1
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Steam 2 1 Energy crops (& manure) D
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198 Biofuels 11.1 Introduction Hydr
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200 Biofuels lactate 6 glucose 1 GA
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Table 11.2 Continued Organism Domai
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204 Biofuels NADH is that the react
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206 Biofuels Clostridium thermocell
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208 Biofuels in particular in Cl. p
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210 Biofuels ferredoxin-dependent m
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212 Biofuels Concentration (mM) 45
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214 Biofuels genes of the glycolysi
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216 Biofuels 11. S. Tanisho and Y.
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218 Biofuels 49. M. J. Axley, D. A.
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220 Biofuels 83. P. J. Silva, E. C.
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12 Improving Sustainability of the
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Table 12.1 Corn ethanol dry mill: e
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Table 12.2 Atmospheric CO2 (equival
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Table 12.3 Incremental CO2 equivale
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Improving Sustainability of the Cor
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Improving Sustainability of the Cor
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Index italic entries indicate refer
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iorefineries 3, 10, 11, 41 and corn
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policy (official) 59-61 production
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NADH 200-6, 207, 210 natural gas 1
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