Biofuels in Perspective

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Improving Sustainability of the Corn-Ethanol Industry 233 LCA into economic analysis. Then realistic adjustments of agricultural land and livestock markets that accompany CE industry expansion could also be included. Our exploratory calculations suggest that the GHG balance improves when corn supply expands to accommodate increased ethanol processing. Also, the relative efficiency of corn in photosynthesis is an important contributing factor when corn-replacing-soybeans is the dominant supply adjustment. In contrast, the GHG balance deteriorates when corn demand adjusts, because the supply does not make a contribution on the margin; and because increased livestock emissions are significant. Our exploratory calculations of incremental changes in GHG balance are a useful reference point for evaluating what happens when the CE expands. But the corn industry may need to make substantial improvements before our reference level is realized. For instance, our analysis of residue removal assumed no till farming and a decade-long adjustment period to rebuild soil carbon. Also, the nitrogen analysis assumed that the IPCC reference levels of fertilizer runoff occur. But there may also be potential for improvement far beyond the reference level. Perhaps livestock emissions can be reduced below the IPCC default levels. Alternatively, the CE industry could move to reduce the connection to the livestock industry, by using high starch corn varieties that reduce the proportion of DGs that are produced, or by using the DGs as a source of processing power. References Dale, Bruce E., ‘Thinking Clearly about Biofuels: Ending the Irrelevant ‘Net Energy’ Debate and Developing Better Performance Metrics for Alternative Fuels,’ Biofuels, Bioprod. Bioref. 1(2007): 14–17. Fageria, N.K., V.C. Baligar, and C.A. Jones, Growth and Mineral Nutrition of Field Crops, 2 nd edition, 1997. Gallagher, Paul W., ‘Some Productivity-Increasing and Quality Changing Technology for the Soybean Complex,’ American Journal of Agricultural Economics 80(February 1998): 165–174. Gallagher, P., M. Dikeman, J. Fritz, E. Wailes, W. Gauthier and H. Shapouri, ‘Biomass from Crop Residues: Some Social Cost and Supply Estimates for U.S. Crops,’ Environmental and Resource Economics 24(April 2003): 335–358. Gallagher, Paul, Guenter Schamel, Hosein Shapouri and Heather Brubaker, ‘The International Competitiveness of the U.S. Corn-Ethanol Industry: A Comparison with Sugar-Ethanol Processing in Brazil,’ Agribusiness 22(1): 109–134 (2006). Heller, Martin C., Gregory A. Keoleian and Timothy A. Volk, ‘Life Cycle Assessment of Willow Bioenergy Cropping System,’ Biomass and Bioenergy 25(2003): 147–165. Intergovernmental Panel on Climate Change. Revised 1996 IPCC Guidelines for National Greenhouse Gas Inventories, 1997. Kuiken, K.A. and Carl M. Lyman, ‘Essential Amino Acid Composition of Soy Bean Meals Prepared from Twenty Strains of Soybeans,’ The Journal of Biological Chemistry, June 11, 1948. Pimentel, David, ‘Ethanol Fuels: Energy Security, Economics, and the Environment,’ Journal of Agricultural and Environmental Ethics 4(1991): 1–13. Shapouri, Hosein, James A. Duffield and Michael Wang , ‘The Energy Balance of Corn Ethanol: An Update,’ US Department of Agriculture, Office of the Chief Economist, Office of Energy Policy and New Uses, Report No. 813 (July 2002). Sheehan, John, Andy Aden, Keith Paustian, Kendrick Killian, John Brenner, Marie Walsh and Richard Nelson (2004) ‘Energy and Environmental Aspects of Using Corn Stover for Fuel Ethanol,’ Journal of Industrial Ecology 7(3–4): 117–146.
234 Biofuels Wang, M., C. Sarricks, and D. Santini, ‘Effects of Fuel Ethanol Use on Fuel-Cycle Energy and Greenhouse Gas Emissions,’ Center for Transportation Research, Energy Systems Division, Argonne National Labs, Argonne, January 1999. Wang, M., Y. Wu, and A. Elgowainy, ‘The Greenhouse Gases, Regulated Emissions, and Energy Use in Transportation Model,’ Operating Manual for GREET: Version 1.7, Center for Transportation Research, Argonne National Laboratory, http://www.transportaion.anl.gov/softare/ GREET/index.html, February 2007. White, P.J, and L.A. Johnson (eds), Corn: Chemistry and Technology, Second Edition, American Association of Cereal Chemists, Inc., St. Paul, 2003. Yu, Guo Pei, Animal Production Based on Crop Residues – Chinese Experiences, FAO Animal Production and Health Paper 149, Food and Agriculture Organization of the United Nations, Rome 2002. ISSN 0254-6019.
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Biofuels Biofuels. Edited by Wim So
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Biofuels Edited by WIM SOETAERT Ghe
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Contents Series Preface ix Preface
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Contents vii 6.3 Biomass Gasificati
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Series Preface Renewable resources,
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Preface This volume on Biofuels fit
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Editors List of Contributors Wim So
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1 Biofuels in Perspective W. Soetae
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Table 1.1 Approximate average world
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Table 1.3 Energy yields of bio-ener
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Biofuels in Perspective 7 is burnt
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2 Sustainable Production of Cellulo
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Sustainable Production of Cellulosi
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Figure 2.9 2004 US adoption rates o
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3 Bio-Ethanol Development in the US
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Bio-Ethanol Development in the USA
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Biorefineries in Production (115) B
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Cost of Cellulosic Ethanol, $ per g
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4 Bio-Ethanol Development(s) in Bra
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Bio-Ethanol Development(s) in Brazi
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Share of energy consumption 100% 90
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Table 4.2 Main technological improv
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4.7.4 Use of Fertilizers and Pestic
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78 Biofuels Table 5.1 Biodiesel pro
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80 Biofuels CH 2 O CH O COR R1 + 3
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82 Biofuels short reaction times. 9
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84 Biofuels Table 5.4 Overview on h
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86 Biofuels Table 5.5 Critical cond
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88 Biofuels methoxide as catalyst u
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90 Biofuels KOH Methano Oil/Fat Aci
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92 Biofuels 16. J. Graille, P. Loza
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6 Bio-based Fischer-Tropsch Diesel
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6.2.1.2 Catalysts Bio-based Fischer
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Bio-based Fischer-Tropsch Diesel Pr
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7 Plant Oil Biofuel: Rationale, Pro
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Table 7.1 Market milestones for pla
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Water CO 2 Figure 7.1 Closed CO 2 l
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Plant Oil Biofuel: Rationale, Produ
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130 Biofuels Among the attractive f
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132 Biofuels Table 8.1 Enzymatic tr
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134 Biofuels conversion was maintai
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136 Biofuels (diglycerides) decreas
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138 Biofuels ME content (wt.%) Reac
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140 Biofuels Ratio of initial react
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142 Biofuels (a) 34 kDa 31 kDa 34 k
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144 Biofuels preparation of whole-c
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ability to reduce flocculation (% o
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148 Biofuels 5. R. C. Strayer, J. A
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150 Biofuels 46. H. Fukuda, Immobil
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9 Production of Biodiesel from Wast
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Production of Biodiesel from Waste
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9.3.2 Processing of Crude and Waste
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Heavy layer from alkaline neutralis
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CPO I 1 1 Heating 60°C Reaction st
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References Production of Biodiesel
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10 Biomass Digestion to Methane in
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Cow manure Pig manure Yard manure B
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Number of plants 3000 2500 2000 150
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Biomass Digestion to Methane in Agr
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Biomass Digestion to Methane in Agr
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Table 10.4 Alternative forms of ene
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Page 200 and 201: Wet fermentation 3 - 10% TS applica
Page 202 and 203: Rel. Frequency [%] 35 30 25 20 15 1
Page 204 and 205: Steam 2 1 Energy crops (& manure) D
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Page 213 and 214: 198 Biofuels 11.1 Introduction Hydr
Page 215 and 216: 200 Biofuels lactate 6 glucose 1 GA
Page 217 and 218: Table 11.2 Continued Organism Domai
Page 219 and 220: 204 Biofuels NADH is that the react
Page 221 and 222: 206 Biofuels Clostridium thermocell
Page 223 and 224: 208 Biofuels in particular in Cl. p
Page 225 and 226: 210 Biofuels ferredoxin-dependent m
Page 227 and 228: 212 Biofuels Concentration (mM) 45
Page 229 and 230: 214 Biofuels genes of the glycolysi
Page 231 and 232: 216 Biofuels 11. S. Tanisho and Y.
Page 233 and 234: 218 Biofuels 49. M. J. Axley, D. A.
Page 235 and 236: 220 Biofuels 83. P. J. Silva, E. C.
Page 238 and 239: 12 Improving Sustainability of the
Page 240 and 241: Table 12.1 Corn ethanol dry mill: e
Page 242 and 243: Table 12.2 Atmospheric CO2 (equival
Page 244 and 245: Table 12.3 Incremental CO2 equivale
Page 246 and 247: Improving Sustainability of the Cor
Page 250 and 251: Index italic entries indicate refer
Page 252 and 253: iorefineries 3, 10, 11, 41 and corn
Page 254 and 255: policy (official) 59-61 production
Page 256 and 257: NADH 200-6, 207, 210 natural gas 1
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