Biofuels in Perspective

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Biorefineries in Production (115) Biorefineries under Construction (79) Figure 3.2 Map of US ethanol biorefinery locations. Bio-Ethanol Development in the USA 43 Source: Renewable Fuels Association, http://www.ethanolrfa.org/objects/documents/plantmap 040307.pdf The vast majority of current ethanol facilities (over 85 %) are situated in the Midwest United States of Illinois, Indiana, Iowa, Kansas, Michigan, Minnesota, Missouri, Nebraska, North Dakota, Ohio, South Dakota, and Wisconsin (see Figure 3.2). The Midwest is the heartland of US agricultural production. With its rich soils and warm, humid summers, the Midwest is home to the highest concentration of corn production in the US, and in the world of US bio-ethanol corn is king. Starch from corn kernels is the feedstock for 98 % of US ethanol production. An estimated 1.6 billion bushels, or 14.4 % of the total corn harvest for 2005, was used for ethanol production during the period of September 2005 to August 2006. Ethanol production is expected to require 20 % of total corn production for the period of September 2006 through August 2007, with as much as one-third of the total corn grain harvest going to ethanol production by the end of the decade. 10 Grain sorghum (milo), barley, wheat and food/beverage residues account for the remaining 2 % of current US ethanol feedstocks. 6 The National Corn Growers Association projects that with continued advances in agricultural biotechnology as many as 6 billion bushels of US corn grain could be available for ethanol production by 2015 while continuing to satisfy food, animal feed and export demands. That amount of corn could produce nearly 18 billion gallons of ethanol, enough to meet over 10 % of projected US gasoline demand. 11 A growing number of non-governmental organizations have begun to express concerns about the impact such an increase in corn production would have on wildlife and the environment. Livestock producers, food processors and consumer groups have also expressed concerns that demand for corn will drive up prices for food and animal feed. Corn prices have nearly doubled since 2006. 9 but long-term effects on agricultural commodity markets remain to be seen.
44 Biofuels Despite these concerns, a growing list of corn ethanol facilities is also emerging outside the traditional Midwest corn belt. California’s central valley, which is another strong cornproducing area, now features several biorefineries to feed California’s voracious appetite for fuel. Texas, a state usually synonymous with petroleum, is also experiencing an ethanol boom. Northwest Texas has only a modest corn harvest, but biorefinery developers have been lured by the abundant supply of renewable power available from the region’s highdensity cattle operations – cow manure is an emerging alternative to natural gas and coal as a climate-friendly non-fossil source of heat and power for ethanol production. Other facilities, such as those under construction along the Columbia River separating Washington State and Oregon, and two planned facilities along the shores of the Great Lakes in New York State, have been sited to take advantage of existing transportation infrastructure. Transportation – both of feedstocks and finished product – is a considerable component of the cost of ethanol production. The ability to ship by barge or rail is increasingly important as the cost of gasoline in the US continues to rise. While corn is likely to remain the dominant ethanol feedstock for the duration of this decade, high fossil energy costs are now converging with breakthroughs in biotechnology and supportive government policy to drive a new generation of ethanol production. Cellulosic ethanol, produced from lignocellulosic biomass found in agricultural residues such as corn stalks or wheat straw, or in dedicated energy crops such as switchgrass or hybrid tree varieties, has tremendous potential to greatly expand ethanol production in the United States. A comprehensive analysis by the US Department of Energy (DOE) and the US Department of Agriculture (USDA) 12 found that, through collection of agricultural, municipal and forestry residues and a shift towards greater use of dedicated energy crops, more than 1.3 billion dry tons of biomass could be available on an annually sustainable basis for biofuels production by 2030. This volume of biomass would be enough to supply over half of current US gasoline demand of 145 billion gallons annually, even at current earlystage ethanol yields for cellulosic biomass. 13 Nearly one billion dry tons of this could be produced by American farmers. By far the largest near-term source of available cellulosic biomass is corn stover – the stalks and leaves that remain on the field after corn kernels are harvested (see Figure 3.3). A fraction of this stover must remain on the fields to maintain soil quality and prevent erosion, but an estimated 75 million to 200 million dry tons of excess corn stover could be sustainably collected each year in the United States, enough to triple current ethanol production. 14 Corn stover grows at a very high density – yields can exceed 5 dry tons per acre, 3–5 times greater than cereal straw for example – making it an attractive source of biomass. However, corn stover also presents several challenges for collection and processing. Unlike wheat straw, which already has an established harvesting and collection infrastructure, very little corn stover is currently collected. Potentially costly new harvesting and baling equipment will likely be needed, which could hinder farmer participation initially. Corn stover also contains as much as 50 % moisture and must remain in the field to dry before collection. Research is underway to address these concerns. In the meantime, despite its lower yields, the presence of an existing collection infrastructure is likely to mean that cereal straw, primarily from wheat, will be one of the first cellulosic biomass crops to be collected for biofuels production. A variety of waste resources, including wood and pulp mill waste and municipal solid waste also offer promising sources of cellulosic biomass.
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Biofuels Biofuels. Edited by Wim So
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Biofuels Edited by WIM SOETAERT Ghe
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Contents Series Preface ix Preface
Page 8 and 9: Contents vii 6.3 Biomass Gasificati
Page 10 and 11: Series Preface Renewable resources,
Page 12 and 13: Preface This volume on Biofuels fit
Page 14 and 15: Editors List of Contributors Wim So
Page 16 and 17: 1 Biofuels in Perspective W. Soetae
Page 18 and 19: Table 1.1 Approximate average world
Page 20 and 21: Table 1.3 Energy yields of bio-ener
Page 22 and 23: Biofuels in Perspective 7 is burnt
Page 24 and 25: 2 Sustainable Production of Cellulo
Page 26 and 27: Sustainable Production of Cellulosi
Page 38 and 39: Figure 2.9 2004 US adoption rates o
Page 54 and 55: 3 Bio-Ethanol Development in the US
Page 56 and 57: Bio-Ethanol Development in the USA
Page 66 and 67: Cost of Cellulosic Ethanol, $ per g
Page 70 and 71: 4 Bio-Ethanol Development(s) in Bra
Page 72 and 73: Bio-Ethanol Development(s) in Brazi
Page 74 and 75: Share of energy consumption 100% 90
Page 80 and 81: Table 4.2 Main technological improv
Page 84 and 85: 4.7.4 Use of Fertilizers and Pestic
Page 90: Bio-Ethanol Development(s) in Brazi
Page 93 and 94: 78 Biofuels Table 5.1 Biodiesel pro
Page 95 and 96: 80 Biofuels CH 2 O CH O COR R1 + 3
Page 97 and 98: 82 Biofuels short reaction times. 9
Page 99 and 100: 84 Biofuels Table 5.4 Overview on h
Page 101 and 102: 86 Biofuels Table 5.5 Critical cond
Page 103 and 104: 88 Biofuels methoxide as catalyst u
Page 105 and 106: 90 Biofuels KOH Methano Oil/Fat Aci
Page 107 and 108: 92 Biofuels 16. J. Graille, P. Loza
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6 Bio-based Fischer-Tropsch Diesel
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6.2.1.2 Catalysts Bio-based Fischer
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Bio-based Fischer-Tropsch Diesel Pr
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7 Plant Oil Biofuel: Rationale, Pro
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Table 7.1 Market milestones for pla
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Water CO 2 Figure 7.1 Closed CO 2 l
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Plant Oil Biofuel: Rationale, Produ
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130 Biofuels Among the attractive f
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132 Biofuels Table 8.1 Enzymatic tr
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134 Biofuels conversion was maintai
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136 Biofuels (diglycerides) decreas
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138 Biofuels ME content (wt.%) Reac
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140 Biofuels Ratio of initial react
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142 Biofuels (a) 34 kDa 31 kDa 34 k
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144 Biofuels preparation of whole-c
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ability to reduce flocculation (% o
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148 Biofuels 5. R. C. Strayer, J. A
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150 Biofuels 46. H. Fukuda, Immobil
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9 Production of Biodiesel from Wast
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Production of Biodiesel from Waste
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9.3.2 Processing of Crude and Waste
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Heavy layer from alkaline neutralis
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CPO I 1 1 Heating 60°C Reaction st
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References Production of Biodiesel
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10 Biomass Digestion to Methane in
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Cow manure Pig manure Yard manure B
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Number of plants 3000 2500 2000 150
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Biomass Digestion to Methane in Agr
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Table 10.4 Alternative forms of ene
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Wet fermentation 3 - 10% TS applica
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Rel. Frequency [%] 35 30 25 20 15 1
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Steam 2 1 Energy crops (& manure) D
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198 Biofuels 11.1 Introduction Hydr
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200 Biofuels lactate 6 glucose 1 GA
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Table 11.2 Continued Organism Domai
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204 Biofuels NADH is that the react
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206 Biofuels Clostridium thermocell
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208 Biofuels in particular in Cl. p
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210 Biofuels ferredoxin-dependent m
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212 Biofuels Concentration (mM) 45
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214 Biofuels genes of the glycolysi
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216 Biofuels 11. S. Tanisho and Y.
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218 Biofuels 49. M. J. Axley, D. A.
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220 Biofuels 83. P. J. Silva, E. C.
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12 Improving Sustainability of the
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Table 12.1 Corn ethanol dry mill: e
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Table 12.2 Atmospheric CO2 (equival
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Table 12.3 Incremental CO2 equivale
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Improving Sustainability of the Cor
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Improving Sustainability of the Cor
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Index italic entries indicate refer
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iorefineries 3, 10, 11, 41 and corn
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policy (official) 59-61 production
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NADH 200-6, 207, 210 natural gas 1
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