ILLUSTRATED FLORA OF EAST TEXAS - Brit - Botanical Research ...

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PRESETTLEMENT, EARLY SETTLEMENT, RECENT CONDITIONS OF PINEYWOODS/INTRODUCTION 85 FIG. 47/TIMBER CUTTERS, KNOWN AS “FLATHEADS,” WITH CROSSCUT SAW. PHOTO COURTESY TEXAS FORESTRY MUSEUM,LUFKIN. Prior to 1901, lumbering was Texas’ largest manufacturing enterprise, was the state’s largest employer, and was first among Texas industries in generating income. It held second place, after oil, in these categories until 1930 (Maxwell & Baker 1983). There were numerous company towns and company stores, with workers often paid in “merchandise checks” or tokens that could only be used in the company stores; well known examples include Diboll in Angelina County, Silsbee in Hardin County, Kirbyville in Jasper County, and Wiergate in Newton County (Maxwell 1964; Sitton & Conrad 1998). As pointed out by Maxwell and Baker (1983), The company-town system has been denounced as vicious and pernicious, enslaving and degrading to the workers and their families. It was all these and became more so as years and decades passed without any change in the social, economic, or political control of the community…. Yet many lumber owners were genuinely FIG.48/LOADING CREW AT WORK ON LOG RAMP, WITH RAILROAD CAR PARTLY LOADED.PHOTO COURTESY TEXAS FORESTRY MUSEUM,LUFKIN.
86 INTRODUCTION/PRESETTLEMENT, EARLY SETTLEMENT, RECENT CONDITIONS OF PINEYWOODS concerned about the well-being of their employees and consistently worked to improve working and living conditions. Three generations of Carters, two generations of Kurths and Hendersons, and three generations of Temples disproved the stereotype that sawmill employer-employee relations were all exploitation and hostility. Relationships between the companies and their employees varied widely, ranging from employee loyalty to serious disputes. Attempts to organize labor were aggressively thwarted. One extreme example was the Central Coal and Coke Company (“4-C”) which had a large mill near Ratcliff in Houston County: “The company also had an arbitrary policy with its employees. In an effort to force them to trade entirely at the company commissary, the manager had a high fence erected separating the company properties from the older town of Ratcliff. Much hostility was generated against the company, FIG.49/W.GOODRICH JONES (1860–1950). PHOTO COURTESY STEPHEN which suffered many annoyances, spite fires, F. AUSTIN STATE UNIV., FOREST HISTORY COLLECTIONS. bombings, and petty reprisals” (Maxwell & Baker 1983). Further, there was an “alarming number of serious accidents” associated with lumbering resulting in the “maiming or death of hundreds of workers annually” (Maxwell 1964). Even before 1900, far-sighted individuals like W. Goodrich Jones (1860-1950; “father of Texas forestry”) (Fig. 49) understood that the timber industry policies were not sustainable. Jones made repeated trips through the Pineywoods and wrote on the conditions and future of Texas forestry. The result was a blueprint for those wanting to conserve the forests and develop a sustained-yield approach. He criticized the incredible waste of the early logging operations and predicted that the East Texas forests would disappear within twenty-five years. Clearly ahead of his time, he stressed reforestation and a planned-cutting program that would allow the forest resource to be used indefinitely. Jones eventually organized the Texas Forestry Association (later renamed the Texas Forest Service) in 1914 and was instrumental in the establishment of a state department of forestry (Maxwell 1974, 1996a). Unfortunately most of Jones’ recommendations were not widely followed. For example, the first large-scale attempt to reforest clearcut land by direct seeding was not carried out until 1925 (Courtenay 1984). As Jones predicted, by the end of the 1920s the forests that initially seemed inexhaustible were rapidly disappearing, and it was estimated that of the 14 to 18 million acres of forest that once covered East Texas, fewer than 1 million acres were left (Maxwell & Baker 1983). By the early 1930s so much lumber had been cut that the result was the elimination of most old growth forests and a serious depletion in the forest resources of the area—for example, by 1935, “barely thirty square miles” of old growth longleaf pine forests remained (Mohlenbrock 1992). Thus ended an era in Texas history. In just five decades, the vast virgin forests of East Texas had been destroyed, representing an unprecedented period of environmental devastation sometimes referred to as the “Great Cutover” (MacRoberts & MacRoberts 2001). Various environmental problems, in addition to destruction of forests, accompanied the lumber boom and its aftermath. Lay (2002), for example, discussed water pollution associated with the advent of early paper mills:
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ILLUSTRATED FLORA OF EAST TEXAS
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ALLDREDGE, LINDA & JACK BATTERBAE,
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We would like to recognize and expr
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ISSN 0833-1475 ISBN 1-889878-12-X S
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“DEEP EAST TEXAS IS AN OLD, QUIET
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Elray S. Nixon E lray Nixon was bor
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ILLUSTRATED FLORA OF EAST TEXAS TAB
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TABLE OFCONTENTS/ PAGE APPENDICES A
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Hymenocallis liriosme
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ILLUSTRATED FLORA OF EAST TEXAS OVE
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4 INTRODUCTION/GEOGRAPHIC AREA OF E
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10 INTRODUCTION/MAJOR RIVERS OF EAS
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12 INTRODUCTION/PLANTS TREATED The
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14 INTRODUCTION/GUIDE TO ARRANGEMEN
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16 INTRODUCTION/GUIDE TO SOURCES OF
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18 INTRODUCTION/GUIDE TO GEOGRAPHIC
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20 INTRODUCTION/GUIDE TO ENDANGERED
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22 INTRODUCTION/GUIDE TO GLOSSARY,
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24 INTRODUCTION/GUIDE TO ABBREVIATI
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26 INTRODUCTION/SUMMARY DATA ON FLO
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28 INTRODUCTION/ACKNOWLEDGMENTS Kar
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30 INTRODUCTION/AUTHORS’ NOTE Pre
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32 INTRODUCTION/GENERAL GEOLOGY OF
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Page 63 and 64: 46 INTRODUCTION/SOILS SOIL ORDER DE
Page 65 and 66: 48 INTRODUCTION/SOILS, EAST TEXAS B
Page 67 and 68: 50 INTRODUCTION/SOIL-RELATED GEOLOG
Page 77 and 78: 60 INTRODUCTION/SOILS OF BLACKLAND
Page 83 and 84: 66 INTRODUCTION/CLIMATE OF EAST TEX
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Page 95 and 96: 78 INTRODUCTION/GEOLOGY OF PINEYWOO
Page 97 and 98: 80 INTRODUCTION/PRESETTLEMENT, EARL
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Page 105 and 106: 88 INTRODUCTION/PRESETTLEMENT VEGET
Page 107 and 108: 90 INTRODUCTION/CURRENT VEGETATION
Page 123 and 124: 106 INTRODUCTION/POST OAK SAVANNAH
Page 127 and 128: 110 INTRODUCTION/GEOLOGY AND SOILS
Page 129 and 130: 112 INTRODUCTION/SOILS, FIRE, AND T
Page 131 and 132: 114 INTRODUCTION/SOILS, FIRE, AND T
Page 133 and 134: 116 INTRODUCTION/ PRESETTLEMENT, EA
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Page 145 and 146: 128 INTRODUCTION/RED RIVER AREA are
Page 147 and 148: 130 INTRODUCTION/BLACKLAND PRAIRIE
Page 149 and 150: 132 INTRODUCTION/GEOLOGY OF BLACKLA
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136 INTRODUCTION/PRESETTLEMENT AND
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144 INTRODUCTION/VEGETATION OF BLAC
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146 INTRODUCTION/FUTURE OF BLACKLAN
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148 INTRODUCTION/FUTURE OF BLACKLAN
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150 INTRODUCTION/CADDO LAKE LOCATIO
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152 INTRODUCTION/CADDO LAKE FIG.84/
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154 INTRODUCTION/PRESENT AND FUTURE
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156 INTRODUCTION/BIG THICKET THE BI
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158 INTRODUCTION/BIG THICKET GEOGRA
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160 INTRODUCTION/NATURAL HISTORY OF
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172 INTRODUCTION/SUMMARY DEFINITION
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184 INTRODUCTION/HISTORY OF BIG THI
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190 INTRODUCTION/CONSERVATION IN BI
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200 INTRODUCTION/ORIGIN AND DIVERSI
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228 INTRODUCTION/CONSERVATION IN EA
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234 INTRODUCTION/HISTORY OF BOTANY
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244 INTRODUCTION/BOTANY IN NORTH CE
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246 INTRODUCTION/BOTANY IN NORTH CE
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248 INTRODUCTION/BOTANY AT UNIVERSI
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250 INTRODUCTION/BOTANY AT TEXAS A&
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252 INTRODUCTION/BOTANY AT TEXAS A&
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254 INTRODUCTION/OTHER CONTRIBUTION
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256 INTRODUCTION/CURRENT BOTANICAL
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258 INTRODUCTION/BOTANICAL ART IN E
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