Lenses and Waves

List of figures
Figure 1 Huygens: sketch of 6 August 1679
Figure 2 Spherical aberration
Figure 3 Cartesian oval.
Figure 4 Huygens: focal distance of a bi-convex lens
Figure 5 Huygens: punctum concursus
Figure 6 Huygens: refraction at the anterior side of a bi-convex lens
Figure 7 Huygens: refraction at the posterior side of a bi-convex lens.
Figure 8 Huygens: focal distance of a bi-convex lens
Figure 9 Huygens: extended image.
Figure 10 Huygens: magnification by a convex lens.
Figure 11 Huygens: four of the cases of magnification by telescopes.
Figure 12 Huygens: analysis of Keplerian telescope with erector lens.
Figure 13 Diagram for Keplerian telescope with erector lens.
Figure 14 Kepler’s solution to the pinhole problem
Figure 15 Kepler: focal distance of a plano-convex lens
Figure 16 Kepler: image formation by a lens
Figure 17 Della Porta: image of a near object
Figure 18 Della Porta: image of distant object
Figure 19 Della Porta: image by a telescope
Figure 20 Barrow’s analysis of image formation in refraction.
Figure 21 Huygens: observations of Saturn with the 12- and a 23-foot telescope.
Figure 22 Huygens: beam to facilitate lens grinding.
Figure 23 Daza’s scale
Figure 24 Huygens’ eyepiece.
Figure 25 Diagram for Huygens’ eyepiece.
Figure 26 Huygens: spherical aberration of a plano-convex lens.
Figure 27 Huygens: spherical aberration of a bi-convex lens
Figure 28 Hudde’s calculation of spherical aberration
Figure 29 Huygens: Galilean configuration in which spherical aberration is neutralized.
Figure 30 Huygens: ‘Circle’ of aberration.
Figure 31 Huygens: Aberration produced by a Keplerian configuration.
Figure 32 Rendering of Huygens’ sketch of chromatic aberration.
Figure 33 Huygens’ invention of 1669
Figure 34 Huygens’ crossed out EUREKA.
Figure 35 Newton’s determination of chromatic aberration.
Figure 36 The first stage of Kepler’s attack of refraction.
Figure 37 The final stage of Kepler’s analysis of refraction
Figure 38 Harriot’s measurements.
Figure 39 Mydorge’s rule
Figure 40 Descartes’ analysis of refraction
Figure 41 Descartes’ analysis of reflection
Figure 42 Barrow’s explanation of reflection.
Figure 43 Barrow’s explanation of refraction.
Figure 44 Huygens: sketch of refracted rays in Iceland crystal.
Figure 45 Huygens: a refracted perpendicular caused by the composition of the crystal.
Figure 46 Huygens: waves through Iceland crystal.
Figure 47 Huygens: shape and main angles of the crystal.
Figure 48 Bartholinus: double refraction.
Figure 49 Bartholinus: refraction in two positions of the crystal.
Figure 50 Bartholinus’ law of strange refraction.
Figure 51 Huygens: rays in the principal section.
Figure 52 Huygens: construction for strangely refracted rays in the principal section