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velopment of sorghum varieties with characteristics that will be utilized most effectively in the new processes. New milling techniques have been developed recently (Reichert 1982; Munck et al. 1982). The successful development of small mills that will supply stable sorghum products to urban consumers will increase the acceptability of sorghum for foods. The improved milling processes will circumvent some undesirable features of sorghum and will affect the kernel characteristics desired. For instance, the best sorghum for milling will probably have a softer endosperm texture than currently desired which will save in processing costs because the soft endosperm can be more easily broken down into flour or desired milled products. Effect of Industrial Use on Quality Attributes In the future sorghum will increasingly be used for industrial processing into flour, grits, and other products which will be used for production of various foods using blends of maize, wheat, and other commodities (Rooney et al. 1980; Miche et al. 1977). This trend is currently under way. For example, sorghum grits are used widely in Mexico as an adjunct in the brewing of European types of beer(Aldape 1981) and a number of food products from malted sorghum are sold commercially in South Africa. Recently, in Central America some efforts have been made to replace imported oats with sorghum flakes as a breakfast food. The development and initial testing of "pearl durra" in the Sudan looks promising (Badi et al. 1981). Thus, although the actual use of sorghum in processed products is small, the interest and ability to make commercial products is advancing steadily. The widespread industrial processing and use of sorghum will produce increased demands for higher quality sorghums, and quality will change as consumers adjust and become familiar with processed products. Novellie and co-workers have successfully scaled up the sorghum beer process from a small village process to a largescale modem industrial procedure with the production in S. Africa of 3 million liters annually, which is equivalent to the European beer produced in S. Africa (Joustra 1981. personal communication). The local beer contains a significant amount of solids which contribute to the nutritional well-being of the consumer. Currently consumers prefer sorghum beer that is light pink with a foam on top of the beer. This beer is made by using 10% sorghum malt that has been soured through lactic acid fermentation, which is mixed with 65% maize grits, cooked, and then mixed with 25% sorghum malt for converting the starch into fermentable sugars. Then, the mash is strained and fermented with yeast for 2 - 3 days and drunk while active fermentation is occurring. Because 65% of the cereal ingredients are maize grits, the beer has a light pink color with a slight foam on top. The reason the maize grits were used early in the industrial process was because inexpensive maize grits were available. Now sorghum is much cheaper than maize, but it is not possible to switch back to a 100% sorghum beer because the color is too dark and there is no foam. The population has now accepted the industrialized sorghum beer and evidently traditional sorghum beer of yesterday is not as desirable. Ironically, projects underway in S. Africa currently seek to process sorghum into refined grits that will produce sorghum beer with light color and the foam. Sorghum must be low in fat to produce a beer with acceptable foam properties. Clearly, similar changes in consumer preference will occur in other areas of Africa as industrialization of sorghum occurs. Future of Sorghum for Food Production of sorghum will remain high and probably expand in the future. Breeding of sorghum with careful concern for its quality will provide a useful grain for the new or modified technological processes that will emerge. The new processing systems will provide refined sorghum and millet products to urban consumers which will eliminate much of the daily drudgery that is now associated with postharvest technology of sorghum. Progress made in the past, especially in the last 5 years, is encouraging and suggests that in the 1980s we will meet many of these objectives. A major reason for our optimism is that many young scientists have been trained. Hopefully, they will spearhead the efforts to improve sorghums for food. Failure to do so will be a disaster for the world. Acknowledgment This research was supported in part by grant 585
AID/DSAN/XII/6-0149 from the Agency for International Development, Washington, D.C. 20523, USA. BULLARD. R. W., GARRISON, M. V., KILBURN, S. R„ and York, J. O. 1980. Laboratory comparisons of polyphenols and their repellent characteristics in bird-resistant sorghum grains. Journal of Agricultural and Food Chemistry 2 8 : 1 0 0 6 - 1 0 1 1 . References AKINGBALA, J. O. 1980. M. S. thesis, Texas A & M University, College Station, Texas, USA. AKINGBALA, J. 0., FAUBION, J. M., and ROONEV, L. W. 1981a. Physical, chemical and organoleptic evaluation of ogi from sorghum of differing kernel characteristics. Journal of Food Science 46:1523. AKINGBALA, J. O., FAUBION, J. M., and ROONEY, L. W. 1981b. A laboratory procedure for the preparation of ogi, a Nigerian fermented food. Journal of Food Science 46:1527. AIDAPE, G. A. 1981. A sorghum dry milling system. In Proceedings. Sorghum Research Utilization Conference, Lubbock, Texas. USA. ANANTHAHAMAN, P. V. 1968. Grain quality in sorghum. Sorghum Newsletter 11 : 4 9 - 5 3 . AYYANGER, G. N. R., and AYYAR, M. A. S. 1936. Sorghum for popping. The Madras Agricultural Journal 2 4 : 323-328. DA, S., AKINGBALA, J. O., SCHEURING, J. F., and ROONEY, L. W. 1982. Evaluation of to quality in a sorghum breeding program. In Proceedings, International Symposium on Sorghum Grain Quality, ICRISAT, 2 8 - 3 1 Oct 1981. Patancheru, A.P., India: ICRISAT. DESIKACHAR, H. S. R. 1980. Three decades of research on the processing and utilization of food grains. Journal of Food Science and Technology 1 7 : 2 4 - 3 2 . DESIKACHAR, H. S. R., and CHANORASEKHAR, A. 1982. Quality of sorghum for use in Indian foods. In Proceedings, International Symposium on Sorghum Grain Quality. ICRISAT, 2 8 - 3 1 Oct 1981. Patancheru, A.P., India: ICRISAT. EGGUM, B. O., BACH KNUDSEN, K. E., and AXTELL, J. D. 1982. Milling and nutritional value of sorghum in Tanzania. In Proceedings, International Symposium on Sorghum Grain Quality, ICRISAT, 2 8 - 3 1 Oct 1981. Patancheru, A.P., India: ICRISAT. GEBREKIDAN, B., and GEBRE HIWOT, B. 1982. Sorghum injera preparations and quality parameters. In Proceedings, International Symposium on Sorghum Grain Quality, ICRISAT, 2 8 - 3 1 Oct 1981. Patancheru, A.P., India: ICRISAT. BADI, S. M., PERTEN, H., and ABERT, P. 1981. New food product "Pearl Ourra". Reports of the 1980 Congress, International Association for Cereal Chemistry 10:102 - 1 0 4 . BAZUA, C. D., IRUEGAS. A., PEDROZA, R.. GUERRA, R., NIETO, 2., and RODRIGUEZ, A. 1978. Corn-sorghum tortillas: Nutritional and organoleptic evaluations. Presented at the Sixteenth International Bread Conference, 16-22 Sept, Winnipeg, Canada. BEDOLLA, S. A., GONZALEZ DE PALACIOS, M. J., KHAN, M. N., and ROONEY, L. W. (In press). Characteristics of sorghum and corn for tortilla. Cereal Chemistry. BOLING, M. B., and EISENER, N. 1982. Bogobe: Sorghum porridge of Botswana. In Proceedings. International Symposium on Sorghum Grain Quality, ICRISAT, 28 - 3 1 Oct 1981. Patancheru, A.P., India: ICRISAT. BRESSANI, R., ELIAS, L. G., ALLEVOOO PAREDES, A. E., and Huezo, M.T. 1977. Processing of sorghum by lime cooking for preparation of tortillas. In Proceedings, Symposium on Sorghum and Millets for Human Food, ed. D.A.V. Dendy. London: Tropical Products Institute. HEYNE, E. R., and BARMORE, M. A. 1965. Breeding wheat for quality. Advances in Agronomy 1 7 : 8 5 - 1 1 4 . HULSE, J. H., LAING, E. M., and PEARSON, O. E. 1980. Sorghum and the millets: their composition and nutritive value. London, UK: Academic Press. 997 pp. IRUEGAS, A., CEJUDO, H., and GUIRAGOSSIAN, V. 1982. Screening and evaluation of tortilla from sorghum and sorghum-maize mixtures. In Proceedings, International Symposium on Sorghum Grain Quality. ICRISAT, 28 - 3 1 Oct 1981. Patancheru, A.P., India: ICRISAT. JOHNSON, B. A., ROONEY, L. W., and KHAN, M. N. 1979. Tortilla making characteristics of micronized sorghum and corn flours. Journal of Food Science 4 5 : 6 7 1 - 6 7 4 . JUAREZ, M. A. 1979. Estudio de adopcion variedad mejoradas de sorgo. Memoral XXV (Volume 3). Proceedings, PCCMA. Teguigalpa, Hondura. Secretoria de Recuersos Naturales. JULIANO, B. O. 1979. The chemical basis of rice grain quality. In Chemical aspects of rice grain quality. Los Banos, Philippines: IRRI. 586
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SORGHUM IN THE EIGHTIES Volume 2 In
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Sorghum in the Eighties Proceedings
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C o n t e n t s Volume 1 F o r e w
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Breeding for Pest Resistance in Sor
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Foreword In October 1971 in Hyderab
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Cropping Systems with Sorghum R. W.
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than sole sorghum. If a row arrange
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the staple cereal. Baker (1979b) ha
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may often be greater under low fert
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Ratoon Systems The importance of ra
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the associated crop can all be defi
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MANDAL, R. C, VIDYABHUSHANAM, R. V.
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Crop Management M. D. Clegg* The ge
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systems. Maize has generally been g
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the next crop. A similar harvesting
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UNGER, P. W., and STEWART, B. A. 19
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programs to evolve closed pedigree
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ally one would go back to breeder's
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egion after a careful study of fact
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The Mechanization of Millet and Sor
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was soon used with a pair of bulloc
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should be understood that workers f
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• The under-utilization of certai
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season makes these animals incapabl
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we will assist in over-equipping th
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contain more clay and considerable
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uncertain moisture are the rule in
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a. Transfer of existing local varie
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JHA. D. 1980. Fertilizer use and it
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proved postharvest grain systems ar
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most developing countries, farmers
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The first concern of research and d
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to be investigated further to devis
Page 75 and 76: Session 6 Production Technology L R
Page 77: seed production by autonomous indep
Page 80 and 81: educed because of shading compared
Page 82 and 83: Willey Millet/groundnut Intercroppi
Page 85 and 86: Sorghum Dry Milling R. D. Reichert*
Page 87 and 88: machines, abrasive elements are mou
Page 89 and 90: Hopper Dehuller Motor Rubber cone E
Page 91 and 92: T o c y c l o n e Bran FAN G r a i
Page 93 and 94: Hopper Head cover Metal screen Meta
Page 95 and 96: Somdiaa Mill: Bonfora, Upper Volta
Page 97 and 98: Figure 11. Photograph of the modifi
Page 99 and 100: JONES, R. W., and BECKWITH, A. C. 1
Page 102 and 103: Industrial Milling of Sorghum for t
Page 104: Plate 1 :a. The sorghum mixture (1)
Page 107 and 108: A D B C E Figure 2. The United Mill
Page 109 and 110: EGGUM. B. 0., BACH KNUDSEN, K. E.,
Page 111 and 112: thickness within a kernel and betwe
Page 113 and 114: 3. Thick porridge —to, tuwo. ugal
Page 115 and 116: Table 2. lnjera quality parameters
Page 117 and 118: Table 5. Sankati quality characteri
Page 119 and 120: Table 7. Overall acceptability of t
Page 121 and 122: swelling power and starch solubilit
Page 123: C r o s s i n g b l o c k p a r e n
Page 127 and 128: ROONEY, L. W.. and KIRLEIS, A. 1979
Page 129 and 130: Table 1. Percent crude protein, 96
Page 131 and 132: proved protein quality and total gr
Page 133 and 134: distilled water for 3 hr. The M 1 p
Page 135 and 136: 4 0 Low y i e l d c l a s s (22) M
Page 137 and 138: Table 7. Comparison of results from
Page 139 and 140: Table 10. Effect of fermentation an
Page 141 and 142: fermented Sudanese kisra and abrey
Page 144 and 145: Sorghum as an Energy Source R. E. S
Page 146 and 147: Table 1. Source Corn Grains, total
Page 148 and 149: S w e e t s o r g h u m s y r u p v
Page 150 and 151: October and November (Fig 1) In thi
Page 152 and 153: Table 4. Comparison of juice qualit
Page 154 and 155: (80)20 BR 500 (Rio) Brix (% juice)
Page 156 and 157: Table 6. Agricultural and Industria
Page 158 and 159: Sweet sorghum Stalks (75%) Leaves (
Page 160 and 161: Development of Basic Studies Seedli
Page 162: Agricultural Experiment Station, Te
Page 165 and 166: • It converts sorghum as a conven
Page 168 and 169: Session 7 Food Quality and Utilizat
Page 170: Session 8 Socioeconomic Considerati
Page 173 and 174: 1. Climatological and physical cond
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why a substantial percentage of far
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An example of the possible problem
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Although those would appear to enco
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Changes from Farm-level Food Self-s
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appear to be merit in strengthening
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TIFFEN. M. 1976. The enterprising p
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egional sense are well known. It is
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to commercial sale. ONCAO sold to p
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interpretations can be given to the
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esearch can concentrate on the most
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Sorghum Marketing in India M. von O
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Table 2. Area, production, and yiel
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Table 4. Production and percentage
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Seasonal Price Variation of S o r g
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Name o f s t a t e P r o d u c t i
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Index 350 340 330 320 3 1 0 3 0 0 2
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Figure 6. Average sorghum prices in
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Table 8. Regression coefficients (t
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Some Important Socioeconomic Issues
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areas in t h e s e zones can be ret
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urgently to tackle t h e p r o b l
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T a b l e 5 . P r o j e c t e d a r
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eports of t h e N C A (1972; 1976c)
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T a b l e 7 . P h y s i c a l a n d
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t i m e l y supply of quality chemi
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Model I: Diffusion Model I I : Feed
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International ICRISAT More develope
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find that their linkage w i t h t h
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A s w e look t o t h e eighties, w
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Session 8 Socioeconomic Considerati
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countries, w h e r e p r o d u c t
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26 24 Karnataka 22 2 0 Maharashtra
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to not result in vastly different c
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c o s t s represent 2 9 % of its na
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T a b l e 7 . S t a t e i n t e r v
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Sorghum Breeding Strategies In Indi
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areas of t h e semi-arid tropics w
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VON OPPEN, M., and RAO, P. P. 1982.
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farmers. I am not sure that this ge
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t r u e in s o m e areas, but I can
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Session 8 Socioeconomic Considerati
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Session 9 Plenary Session Chairman:
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2.1.4 N e e d for i m p r o v e d i
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taxa retain variation that w a s lo
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ing rice; s o r g h u m on l o w -
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Valedictory Speech A. H. Bunting* M
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in agriculture m a y be m a d e . "
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Appendix 1 Short Communications
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Results indicated that stover yield
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grain was assessed for grain mold b
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Mutational Studies in Sorghum C. S.
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The Contribution of IRAT to the Dev
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Poster Session The following papers
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The Starch for Apospory in Sorghum
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A Grain Yield Development in a Hybr
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Nitrogen-fixing Bacteria Associated
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Presentation of Award J. Roy Q u i
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Lecture After Presentation of Award
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prepared by Dr. M o r g a n , have
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i n g s of t h e International S h
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P a r t i c i p a n t s , I n t e r
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India S. S. Adkoli Plant Pathology
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B. B. Reddy Plant Breeding IARI Reg
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O. Sidiba Institut du Sahel B.P. 15
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Siwaporn Siwawej Food Science and T
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W. H. M. Morris Agricultural Econom
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P E A R L MIILLET T R A I N I N G D
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I C R I S A T International Crops R
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