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Research Systems L Busch and W. B. Lacy* W h y s t u d y research? Does not studying research s y s t e m s detract f r o m t h e process of doing research itself? A n d . w h a t is to be gained t h r o u g h t h e s t u d y of research s y s t e m s ? Such questions are w o r t h y of consideration, for clearly t h e s t u d y of agricultural research s y s t e m s is not an established field of inquiry. W i t h o u t belaboring t h e s e questions, let us a t t e m p t to a n s w e r t h e m . First, it should be clear to all that agricultural research s y s t e m s that are poorly organized are simply ineffective. W e n e e d to k n o w m o r e a b o u t research organization in order to d e t e r m i n e w h a t characteristics are likely to p r o m o t e high quality research. S e c o n d , agricultural research e m e r g e d during t h e colonial period in w o r l d history a n d w a s d e s i g n e d t o serve colonial interests (Busch and Sachs 1981). M a n y of t h e institutional structures, a n d e v e n tacit a s s u m p tions m a d e by scientists during t h e colonial period h a v e b e e n held over t o t h e present. A r e s u c h structures and a s s u m p t i o n s valid? Do they prom o t e d e v e l o p m e n t or d e p e n d e n c e ? Third, agricultural research m a y inadvertently lead to undesirable social and e c o n o m i c change. This s u g g e s t s that a better understanding of t h e operation of research s y s t e m s m a y help us resolve t h e apparent antithesis b e t w e e n e f f i c i e n c y and equity. I n this paper w e begin b y e x a m i n i n g briefly t h e historical d e v e l o p m e n t of agricultural research. T h e n w e e x a m i n e t h e current structure o f t h e research s y s t e m . T h e next section deals w i t h t h e process o f research decision m a k i n g . Finally, w e deal w i t h t h e p r o d u c t s of research a n d their policy implications. * A s s o c i a t e P r o f e s s o r s . D e p a r t m e n t of Sociology, U n i - v e r s i t y o f K e n t u c k y , L e x i n g t o n , K e n t u c k y 4 0 5 4 6 - 0 0 9 1 , U S A . T h e r e s e a r c h r e p o r t i n t h i s article (No. 8 1 - 1 4 - 1 5 9 ) w a s partially s u p p o r t e d b y a g r a n t f r o m t h e U . S . A g e n c y f o r I n ternational D e v e l o p m e n t ( A I D / D S A N / X I I - G - 0 1 4 9 ) a n d a p r o j e c t of t h e K e n t u c k y A g r i c u l t u r a l E x p e r i m e n t S t a t i o n . A n Historical O v e r v i e w T i m e and space do not permit a detailed analysis of t h e historical d e v e l o p m e n t of agricultural research s y s t e m s . H o w e v e r , a brief s k e t c h of t h e m o d e l s used in agricultural research w i l l help to f o c u s upon t h e key issues to be c o n f r o n t e d during t h e eighties. As noted previously, agricultural research in less developed countries e m e r g e d not f r o m t h e d e m a n d s of farmers but, in large part, in response to t h e d e m a n d s of t h e colonial p o w e r s for a w i d e range of tropical products. As B r o c k w a y (1979) and Spitz (1975) have n o t e d , t h e transfer of plant material across t h e continents dates back to at least t h e 1500s. Until very recently, t h e m o d e l e m p l o y e d in virtually all agricultural research w a s w h a t we call t h e diffusion m o d e l (Fig. 1). In t h e diffusion m o d e l t h e researcher acted upon a research territory receiving certain signals in return that indicated increased yields a n d / o r return upon i n v e s t m e n t . T h e s e research results w e r e t h e n diffused t o f a r m e r s for use in their fields. O f t e n , t h e s e research results w e r e developed in t h e t e m p e r ate, industrialized countries and passed on directly t o farmers w i t h o u t close examination. This w a s particularly true in t h e case of foodstuffs, as m o s t research actually carried o u t i n t h e tropics c o n - cerned t h e so-called " e x p o r t " crops. In general, t h e a s s u m p t i o n w a s t h a t r e s e a r c h r e s u l t s obtained at e x p e r i m e n t stations w o u l d be reproducible on f a r m e r s ' fields if t h e f a r m e r s f o l l o w e d t h e proper instructions. As a result, farmers w e r e o f t e n exhorted, and occasionally f o r c e d (e.g.. C o m e t 1965), t o e m p l o y t h e allegedly i m p r o v e d m e t h o d s . The diffusion m o d e l r e m a i n e d t h e d o m i n a n t m o d e l for agricultural research and e x t e n s i o n until w e l l into t h e middle o f t h e 2 0 t h century. I t w a s frequently unsuccessful. W h a t diffusion studies failed t o n o t e w a s that t h e f a r m e r ' s goal w a s n o t so m u c h to increase productivity as to obtain a International Crops Research Institute for the Semi-Arid Tropics. 1982. Sorghum in the Eighties: Proceedings of the International Symposium on Sorghum, 2 - 7 Nov 8 1 . Patancheru, A.P., India. Patancheru. A.P. India: ICRISAT. 6 8 9
Model I: Diffusion Model I I : Feedback Researcher Farmer Researcher Farmer Research territory Farmer's field Research territory Farmer's field Model I I I : Reconnaisance Model IV: Dialogue Researcher Farmer Researcher Farmer Research territory I: e x p e r i m e n t station Farmer's field Research territory I: experiment station Research territory: farmer's field Research territory I I : farming s y s t e m Figure 1. Models of agricultural research. livelihood. As t h e late A n d r e w Pearse (1980, p. 20) has put it: "For t h e typical rural head of family, t h e central p r o b l e m of livelihood is o n e of h o w to p r o d u c e or obtain by e x c h a n g e or purchase sufficient f o o d for all t h e year round to maintain t h e m e m b e r s of t h e family in a condition of ' n o r m a l ' g o o d h e a l t h . " As a result, a great n u m b e r of factors other t h a n e c o n o m i c a n d technical o n e s enter into innovation decisions (Mbithi 1977). M o r e o v e r , studies of diffusion p r o c e s s e s f r e q u e n t l y p o i n t e d o u t that p e o p l e m o s t likely to adopt agricultural innovations w e r e t h o s e w h o w e r e m o s t c o s m o p o l i t a n , best e d u c a t e d , wealthiest, and had greatest access to credit (Rogers and S h o e m a k e r 1971). In short, people m o s t likely to adopt agricultural innovations w e r e t h o s e m o s t like t h e researchers. By t h e m i d - 1 9 5 0 s a m o d e l w a s d e v e l o p e d w h i c h we have labeled t h e feedback m o d e l . Research w a s still c o n d u c t e d largely on experim e n t stations a n d rarely on f a r m e r s ' fields. H o w e v e r , after information w a s supplied t o t h e f a r m e r o n t h e n e w innovations that research had p r o d u c e d , t h e f a r m e r w a s asked if he or s h e — a n d m o r e likely h e than s h e — h a d a d o p t e d t h e n e w innovation a n d i f not, w h y not. The result w a s a substantial i m p r o v e m e n t in t h e c o m m u n i c a t i o n s process t h o u g h it nevertheless r e m a i n e d a o n e - w a y process. T h e basic underlying a s s u m p t i o n s 6 9 0
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SORGHUM IN THE EIGHTIES Volume 2 In
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Sorghum in the Eighties Proceedings
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C o n t e n t s Volume 1 F o r e w
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Breeding for Pest Resistance in Sor
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Foreword In October 1971 in Hyderab
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Cropping Systems with Sorghum R. W.
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than sole sorghum. If a row arrange
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the staple cereal. Baker (1979b) ha
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may often be greater under low fert
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Ratoon Systems The importance of ra
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the associated crop can all be defi
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MANDAL, R. C, VIDYABHUSHANAM, R. V.
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Crop Management M. D. Clegg* The ge
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systems. Maize has generally been g
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the next crop. A similar harvesting
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UNGER, P. W., and STEWART, B. A. 19
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programs to evolve closed pedigree
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ally one would go back to breeder's
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egion after a careful study of fact
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The Mechanization of Millet and Sor
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was soon used with a pair of bulloc
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should be understood that workers f
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• The under-utilization of certai
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season makes these animals incapabl
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we will assist in over-equipping th
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contain more clay and considerable
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uncertain moisture are the rule in
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a. Transfer of existing local varie
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JHA. D. 1980. Fertilizer use and it
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proved postharvest grain systems ar
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most developing countries, farmers
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The first concern of research and d
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to be investigated further to devis
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Session 6 Production Technology L R
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seed production by autonomous indep
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educed because of shading compared
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Willey Millet/groundnut Intercroppi
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Sorghum Dry Milling R. D. Reichert*
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machines, abrasive elements are mou
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Hopper Dehuller Motor Rubber cone E
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T o c y c l o n e Bran FAN G r a i
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Hopper Head cover Metal screen Meta
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Somdiaa Mill: Bonfora, Upper Volta
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Figure 11. Photograph of the modifi
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JONES, R. W., and BECKWITH, A. C. 1
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Industrial Milling of Sorghum for t
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Plate 1 :a. The sorghum mixture (1)
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A D B C E Figure 2. The United Mill
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EGGUM. B. 0., BACH KNUDSEN, K. E.,
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thickness within a kernel and betwe
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3. Thick porridge —to, tuwo. ugal
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Table 2. lnjera quality parameters
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Table 5. Sankati quality characteri
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Table 7. Overall acceptability of t
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swelling power and starch solubilit
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C r o s s i n g b l o c k p a r e n
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AID/DSAN/XII/6-0149 from the Agency
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ROONEY, L. W.. and KIRLEIS, A. 1979
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Table 1. Percent crude protein, 96
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proved protein quality and total gr
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distilled water for 3 hr. The M 1 p
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4 0 Low y i e l d c l a s s (22) M
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Table 7. Comparison of results from
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Table 10. Effect of fermentation an
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fermented Sudanese kisra and abrey
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Sorghum as an Energy Source R. E. S
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Table 1. Source Corn Grains, total
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S w e e t s o r g h u m s y r u p v
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October and November (Fig 1) In thi
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Table 4. Comparison of juice qualit
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(80)20 BR 500 (Rio) Brix (% juice)
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Table 6. Agricultural and Industria
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Sweet sorghum Stalks (75%) Leaves (
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Development of Basic Studies Seedli
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Agricultural Experiment Station, Te
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• It converts sorghum as a conven
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Session 7 Food Quality and Utilizat
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Session 8 Socioeconomic Considerati
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1. Climatological and physical cond
Page 175 and 176: why a substantial percentage of far
Page 177 and 178: An example of the possible problem
Page 179 and 180: Although those would appear to enco
Page 181 and 182: Changes from Farm-level Food Self-s
Page 183 and 184: appear to be merit in strengthening
Page 185 and 186: TIFFEN. M. 1976. The enterprising p
Page 187 and 188: egional sense are well known. It is
Page 189 and 190: to commercial sale. ONCAO sold to p
Page 191 and 192: interpretations can be given to the
Page 193 and 194: esearch can concentrate on the most
Page 196 and 197: Sorghum Marketing in India M. von O
Page 198 and 199: Table 2. Area, production, and yiel
Page 200 and 201: Table 4. Production and percentage
Page 202 and 203: Seasonal Price Variation of S o r g
Page 204 and 205: Name o f s t a t e P r o d u c t i
Page 206 and 207: Index 350 340 330 320 3 1 0 3 0 0 2
Page 208 and 209: Figure 6. Average sorghum prices in
Page 210 and 211: Table 8. Regression coefficients (t
Page 212 and 213: Some Important Socioeconomic Issues
Page 214 and 215: areas in t h e s e zones can be ret
Page 216 and 217: urgently to tackle t h e p r o b l
Page 218 and 219: T a b l e 5 . P r o j e c t e d a r
Page 220 and 221: eports of t h e N C A (1972; 1976c)
Page 222 and 223: T a b l e 7 . P h y s i c a l a n d
Page 224: t i m e l y supply of quality chemi
Page 229 and 230: International ICRISAT More develope
Page 231 and 232: find that their linkage w i t h t h
Page 233 and 234: A s w e look t o t h e eighties, w
Page 236 and 237: Session 8 Socioeconomic Considerati
Page 238 and 239: countries, w h e r e p r o d u c t
Page 240 and 241: 26 24 Karnataka 22 2 0 Maharashtra
Page 242 and 243: to not result in vastly different c
Page 244 and 245: c o s t s represent 2 9 % of its na
Page 246 and 247: T a b l e 7 . S t a t e i n t e r v
Page 248 and 249: Sorghum Breeding Strategies In Indi
Page 250 and 251: areas of t h e semi-arid tropics w
Page 252: VON OPPEN, M., and RAO, P. P. 1982.
Page 255 and 256: farmers. I am not sure that this ge
Page 257 and 258: t r u e in s o m e areas, but I can
Page 260 and 261: Session 8 Socioeconomic Considerati
Page 262: Session 9 Plenary Session Chairman:
Page 265 and 266: 2.1.4 N e e d for i m p r o v e d i
Page 267 and 268: taxa retain variation that w a s lo
Page 269 and 270: ing rice; s o r g h u m on l o w -
Page 272 and 273: Valedictory Speech A. H. Bunting* M
Page 274 and 275: in agriculture m a y be m a d e . "
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Appendix 1 Short Communications
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Results indicated that stover yield
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grain was assessed for grain mold b
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Mutational Studies in Sorghum C. S.
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The Contribution of IRAT to the Dev
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Poster Session The following papers
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The Starch for Apospory in Sorghum
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A Grain Yield Development in a Hybr
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Nitrogen-fixing Bacteria Associated
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Presentation of Award J. Roy Q u i
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Lecture After Presentation of Award
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prepared by Dr. M o r g a n , have
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i n g s of t h e International S h
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P a r t i c i p a n t s , I n t e r
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India S. S. Adkoli Plant Pathology
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B. B. Reddy Plant Breeding IARI Reg
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O. Sidiba Institut du Sahel B.P. 15
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Siwaporn Siwawej Food Science and T
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W. H. M. Morris Agricultural Econom
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P E A R L MIILLET T R A I N I N G D
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I C R I S A T International Crops R
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