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Development of Basic Studies Seedling and Initial G r o w t h Rates Sweet sorghums are slow starters, they have slower growth rates than grain sorghum for the first 2 0 - 3 0 days of growth. The factors associated with this trait need to be identified to allow breeders to develop fast starters. Herbicide and Insecticide Resistance Sweet sorghums are generally much more susceptible to chemical damage than other sorghums and grasses. Sources of resistance need to be identified for utilization in a breeding program. The use of protection agents mixed with the seed to give a greater range of herbicide use is also needed. G r o w t h Curves The development of growth curves associated with sugar metabolism and accumulation is needed as well as studies to determine the optimum stalk size for maximum sugar production and maximum sugar extraction during the industrial processing phase. Other biochemical and physiological aspects of sugar production and accumulation also need to be studied. Development of Improved Management Practices R o w Spacing and Plant Density Optimum plant spacing and density studies need to be developed to determine the correct combination of total productivity, stalk size, and the the type of industrial processing. Stalk size and number are also important factors in manual harvesting efficiency. Date of Planting Studies Regional date of planting trials for adapted cultivars are necessary for optimum varietal management. Mechanization The lack of adequate planting equipment necessary for uniform stands is a limiting factor in many of the tropical areas of the world and adequate planting and management systems need to be developed. Systems of mechanized harvest or semimechanized harvest compatible with the industrial process need to be developed. W e e d Control Adequate weed control systems need to be developed. The use of seed protection agents for greater herbicide choice and combinations of mechanical and chemical control methods need to be developed and improved. Ratooning Production systems utilizing one or two ratoon harvests need to be developed. Until recently, with the introduction of photoinsensitive varieties ratoon cropping was not possible in the short-day tropical environments. Schaffert and Borgonovi (1980a) obtained total production of 166 t/ha sorghum in three harvests near Petrolina, Pernambuco, Brazil with a selection from the variety Honey in one year. New cultivars and systems for ratoon cropping are essential for efficient varietial management. Fertilizer Calibrations Fertilizer recommendations need to be developed for high yielding sweet sorghums where the entire crop is removed and stillage and biofertilizer may or may not be applied to the soil. Reeves et al. (1978) reported a range of removal of potassium from the soil varying from 132 to 515 kg/ha for three sweet sorghum cultivars. The phosphorus removed was much less and ranged from 15 to 37 kg/ha. Development of More Efficient Industrial Processes The most promising system for the immediate future, using sweet sorghum, is the microdistillery with a capacity ranging from 500 to 5000 liters per day. These are small cooperative or large farm systems where approximately 10% of the crop land area is needed for zero petroleum energy inputs and where the by-products can be utilized on the farm. Additional studies of stillage and biofertilizer rates need to be made for optimum 621
utilization of these products. Improving the efficiency of sugar extraction, cellulose hydrolysis (biodigestor), fermentation, distillation and heat transfer is important. Technology for more efficient utilization of ethanol and biogas in farm motors is also desirable. The biological values of the by-products for animal feed also need to be evaluated. Economical methods to utilize the starch in the extracted juice for alcohol production need to be developed for microdistilleries. Fuel or Food or Fuel a n d Food Using energy crops as a source of fuel places a new demand on agriculture to produce an adequate food supply. In the 1980s we will see a much larger quantity of agricultural resources being diverted to the production of nonfood crops than could have been imagined in the 1970s. Foodexporting countries such as the United States, Brazil, Australia, New Zealand, and South Africa are actively pursuing programs for the conversion of crops into alcohol for fuel on a commercial scale. As oil prices increase, distillers will be able to increase the price of ethanol and will become competitive in grain markets. The use of sugar crops for liquid fuel will also compete for the world's cropland to a large extent. The use of sweet sorghum for liquid fuel production does not need to be a question of fuel or food but rather an option of fuel and food. research and analysis of samples for the maturity curves presented in this paper, and the National Corn and Sorghum Research Center (CNPMS) of Empresa Brasileira de Pesquisa Agropecuaria (EMB<strong>RA</strong>PA) for other important data used. References BROADHEAD, D. M.. FREEMAN, K, C, COLEMAN, O. H., and ZUMMO, N. 1974. Theis—a new variety of sweet sorghum for syrup production. Mississippi Agricultural and Forestry Experiment Station Information Sheet 1236. Mississippi State, Mississippi, USA: Mississippi State University. BROWN, L. R. 1980. Food or fuel: new competition for the world's cropland. Worldwatch Paper 35. Washington, D. C, USA: WorldWatch Institute. COLEMAN, O. H., and BROADHEAD. D. M. 1968. Brandes. a new variety of sweet sorghum for syrup production. Mississippi State University Agriculture Experiment Station Information Sheet 1013. State College, Mississippi. USA; Mississippi State University HATCH, M. D. 1976. The C 4 pathway of photosynthesis: mechanism and function Pages 5 9 - 8 1 in CO 2 metabolism and plant productivity, eds. R. H. Burris, and C. C. Black, Baltimore, Maryland, USA: University Park Press. HEICHEL, G. H. 1976. Agriculture production and energy resources. American Scientist 6 4 : 6 4 - 7 2 . C o n c l u s i o n If the production of large quantities of ethanol for fuel from sugar crops becomes a reality, the future of sweet sorghums in the eighties and beyond indeed looks bright. Sorghum breeders must utilize the tremendous genetic diversity of this genus and direct breeding efforts toward developing improved varieties and hybrids as a crop for fuel and agronomists must develop production systems for the many industrial options available for processing sweet sorghum. Acknowledgments The authors wish to thank PLANALSUCAR (the Sugarcane Improvement Authority of Brazil) in Araras, SP for their support of sweet sorghum LOOMIS, R. S., and WILLIAMS, W. A. 1963. Maximum crop productivity: an estimate. Crop Science 3 : 6 7 - 7 1 . MILLER, F. R., and CREELMAN, R. A. 1980. Sorghum—a new fuel. In Proceedings, 35th Annual Corn and Sorghum Research Conference, American Seed Trade Association. NATHAN, R. A. 1978. Fuels from sugar crops: systems study for sugarcane, sweet sorghum, and sugar beets. Oak Ridge, Tennessee, USA: United States Department of Energy, Technical Information Center. REEVES, S. A. 1976. Sweet sorghum research report, 1975. Technical Report 7 6 - 3 . College Station, Texas, USA: Texas Agricultural Experiment Station, Texas A & M University. REEVES, S. A., HIPP, B. W., and SMITH, B. A. 1978. Sweet sorghum biomass—a renewable energy source. Technical Report 7 8 - 1 . College Station, Texas, USA: Texas 622
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SORGHUM IN THE EIGHTIES Volume 2 In
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Sorghum in the Eighties Proceedings
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C o n t e n t s Volume 1 F o r e w
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Breeding for Pest Resistance in Sor
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Foreword In October 1971 in Hyderab
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Cropping Systems with Sorghum R. W.
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than sole sorghum. If a row arrange
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the staple cereal. Baker (1979b) ha
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may often be greater under low fert
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Ratoon Systems The importance of ra
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the associated crop can all be defi
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MANDAL, R. C, VIDYABHUSHANAM, R. V.
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Crop Management M. D. Clegg* The ge
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systems. Maize has generally been g
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the next crop. A similar harvesting
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UNGER, P. W., and STEWART, B. A. 19
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programs to evolve closed pedigree
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ally one would go back to breeder's
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egion after a careful study of fact
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The Mechanization of Millet and Sor
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was soon used with a pair of bulloc
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should be understood that workers f
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• The under-utilization of certai
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season makes these animals incapabl
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we will assist in over-equipping th
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contain more clay and considerable
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uncertain moisture are the rule in
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a. Transfer of existing local varie
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JHA. D. 1980. Fertilizer use and it
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proved postharvest grain systems ar
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most developing countries, farmers
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The first concern of research and d
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to be investigated further to devis
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Session 6 Production Technology L R
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seed production by autonomous indep
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educed because of shading compared
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Willey Millet/groundnut Intercroppi
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Sorghum Dry Milling R. D. Reichert*
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machines, abrasive elements are mou
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Hopper Dehuller Motor Rubber cone E
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T o c y c l o n e Bran FAN G r a i
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Hopper Head cover Metal screen Meta
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Somdiaa Mill: Bonfora, Upper Volta
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Figure 11. Photograph of the modifi
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JONES, R. W., and BECKWITH, A. C. 1
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Industrial Milling of Sorghum for t
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Plate 1 :a. The sorghum mixture (1)
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A D B C E Figure 2. The United Mill
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Page 111 and 112: thickness within a kernel and betwe
Page 113 and 114: 3. Thick porridge —to, tuwo. ugal
Page 115 and 116: Table 2. lnjera quality parameters
Page 117 and 118: Table 5. Sankati quality characteri
Page 119 and 120: Table 7. Overall acceptability of t
Page 121 and 122: swelling power and starch solubilit
Page 123 and 124: C r o s s i n g b l o c k p a r e n
Page 125 and 126: AID/DSAN/XII/6-0149 from the Agency
Page 127 and 128: ROONEY, L. W.. and KIRLEIS, A. 1979
Page 129 and 130: Table 1. Percent crude protein, 96
Page 131 and 132: proved protein quality and total gr
Page 133 and 134: distilled water for 3 hr. The M 1 p
Page 135 and 136: 4 0 Low y i e l d c l a s s (22) M
Page 137 and 138: Table 7. Comparison of results from
Page 139 and 140: Table 10. Effect of fermentation an
Page 141 and 142: fermented Sudanese kisra and abrey
Page 144 and 145: Sorghum as an Energy Source R. E. S
Page 146 and 147: Table 1. Source Corn Grains, total
Page 148 and 149: S w e e t s o r g h u m s y r u p v
Page 150 and 151: October and November (Fig 1) In thi
Page 152 and 153: Table 4. Comparison of juice qualit
Page 154 and 155: (80)20 BR 500 (Rio) Brix (% juice)
Page 156 and 157: Table 6. Agricultural and Industria
Page 158 and 159: Sweet sorghum Stalks (75%) Leaves (
Page 162: Agricultural Experiment Station, Te
Page 165 and 166: • It converts sorghum as a conven
Page 168 and 169: Session 7 Food Quality and Utilizat
Page 170: Session 8 Socioeconomic Considerati
Page 173 and 174: 1. Climatological and physical cond
Page 175 and 176: why a substantial percentage of far
Page 177 and 178: An example of the possible problem
Page 179 and 180: Although those would appear to enco
Page 181 and 182: Changes from Farm-level Food Self-s
Page 183 and 184: appear to be merit in strengthening
Page 185 and 186: TIFFEN. M. 1976. The enterprising p
Page 187 and 188: egional sense are well known. It is
Page 189 and 190: to commercial sale. ONCAO sold to p
Page 191 and 192: interpretations can be given to the
Page 193 and 194: esearch can concentrate on the most
Page 196 and 197: Sorghum Marketing in India M. von O
Page 198 and 199: Table 2. Area, production, and yiel
Page 200 and 201: Table 4. Production and percentage
Page 202 and 203: Seasonal Price Variation of S o r g
Page 204 and 205: Name o f s t a t e P r o d u c t i
Page 206 and 207: Index 350 340 330 320 3 1 0 3 0 0 2
Page 208 and 209: Figure 6. Average sorghum prices in
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Table 8. Regression coefficients (t
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Some Important Socioeconomic Issues
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areas in t h e s e zones can be ret
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urgently to tackle t h e p r o b l
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T a b l e 5 . P r o j e c t e d a r
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eports of t h e N C A (1972; 1976c)
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T a b l e 7 . P h y s i c a l a n d
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t i m e l y supply of quality chemi
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Model I: Diffusion Model I I : Feed
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International ICRISAT More develope
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find that their linkage w i t h t h
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A s w e look t o t h e eighties, w
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Session 8 Socioeconomic Considerati
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countries, w h e r e p r o d u c t
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26 24 Karnataka 22 2 0 Maharashtra
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to not result in vastly different c
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c o s t s represent 2 9 % of its na
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T a b l e 7 . S t a t e i n t e r v
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Sorghum Breeding Strategies In Indi
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areas of t h e semi-arid tropics w
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VON OPPEN, M., and RAO, P. P. 1982.
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farmers. I am not sure that this ge
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t r u e in s o m e areas, but I can
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Session 8 Socioeconomic Considerati
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Session 9 Plenary Session Chairman:
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2.1.4 N e e d for i m p r o v e d i
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taxa retain variation that w a s lo
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ing rice; s o r g h u m on l o w -
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Valedictory Speech A. H. Bunting* M
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in agriculture m a y be m a d e . "
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Appendix 1 Short Communications
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Results indicated that stover yield
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grain was assessed for grain mold b
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Mutational Studies in Sorghum C. S.
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The Contribution of IRAT to the Dev
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Poster Session The following papers
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The Starch for Apospory in Sorghum
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A Grain Yield Development in a Hybr
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Nitrogen-fixing Bacteria Associated
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Presentation of Award J. Roy Q u i
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Lecture After Presentation of Award
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prepared by Dr. M o r g a n , have
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i n g s of t h e International S h
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P a r t i c i p a n t s , I n t e r
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India S. S. Adkoli Plant Pathology
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B. B. Reddy Plant Breeding IARI Reg
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O. Sidiba Institut du Sahel B.P. 15
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Siwaporn Siwawej Food Science and T
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W. H. M. Morris Agricultural Econom
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P E A R L MIILLET T R A I N I N G D
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I C R I S A T International Crops R
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